Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Steps Towards Drug Discovery (Exploring Medicinal Plants)

Medicinal and aromatic plants are beneficial to human health. Plant-derived molecules possess biological activities that can be used to prevent many infectious diseases and metabolic disorders. Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants summarizes techniques and methods used to study the biological activities of plant-derived extracts and compounds to study ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological features of medicinal and aromatic plants. This book: Includes computational approaches to study the pharmacological properties of biomolecules in medicinal and aromatic plants Details methods in ethnopharmacology including chromatographical and analytical techniques Demonstrates trends in sustainable use and management of medicinal and aromatic plants Features information on databases and tools used in computational phytochemistry for drug designing and discovery Elucidates the importance of phytochemicals as immunomodulators in herbal drug development including their nanoformulations A volume in the Exploring Medicinal Plants series, Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants will be of interest to those working with plant extracts, including botanists and ethnobotanists, pharmacologists and ethnopharmacologists, as well as scientists and researchers interested in natural compounds and their potential applications. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents About the Editors Contributors Chapter 1 Introduction to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Diversity, Biogeographic Distribution and Conservation Status 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Diversity of MAPs Worldwide 1.3 Biogeographic Distribution of MAPs 1.4 MAPs of America and their Importance 1.5 MAPs of Africa and their Importance 1.6 MAPs of Asia and their Importance 1.7 MAPs of Australia and their Importance 1.8 MAPs of Europe and their Importance 1.9 Conservation Status 1.10 In Situ Conservation 1.11 Ex Situ Conservation 1.12 Botanic Gardens 1.13 Practices Related to Cultivation 1.14 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) 1.15 Utilization With Sustainability 1.16 Conclusion References Chapter 2 Botanical Bases of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 2.1 Introduction 2.2 An Overview of MAPs' History 2.2.1 An Overview of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 2.2.2 Application of MAPs in Alternative Medicine 2.3 Taxonomical Systematics in MAPs 2.3.1 Lavandula Angustifolia Mill 2.3.1.1 Medicinal Uses of Lavender 2.3.1.2 Chemical Constituents 2.3.1.3 Chemical Structure 2.3.1.4 Taxonomical Characteristics 2.3.1.5 Pharmacological Action of Lavender 2.4 Ocimum Sanctum L 2.4.1 Medicinal Uses of Ocimum Sanctum (Tulsi) 2.4.2 Chemical Constituents 2.4.3 Chemical Structure 2.4.4 Taxonomical Characteristics 2.4.5 Pharmacological Action 2.5 Rosmarinus Officinalis L 2.5.1 Medicinal Uses 2.5.2 Chemical Constituents 2.5.3 Chemical Structure 2.5.4 Morphological Characters 2.5.5 Pharmacological Activity 2.6 Thymus Vulgaris L 2.6.1 Medicinal Uses 2.6.2 Chemical Constituents 2.6.3 Chemical Structure 2.6.4 Morphological Characters 2.6.5 Pharmacological Activities 2.7 Origanum Vulgare L 2.7.1 Medicinal Uses 2.7.2 Chemical Constituents 2.7.3 Chemical Structure 2.7.4 Morphological Characters 2.7.5 Pharmacological Activity 2.8 Salvia Officinalis L 2.8.1 Medicinal Uses 2.8.2 Chemical Constituents 2.8.3 Chemical Structure 2.8.4 Morphological Character 2.8.5 Pharmacological Activities 2.9 Mentha Spicata L 2.9.1 Medicinal Uses 2.9.2 Chemical Constituents 2.9.3 Chemical Structure 2.9.4 Morphological Characters 2.9.5 Pharmacological Characters 2.10 Matricaria Chamomilla L 2.10.1 Medicinal Uses 2.10.2 Chemical Constituents 2.10.3 Chemical Structure 2.10.4 Morphological Characters 2.10.5 Pharmacological Activities 2.11 Conclusion References Chapter 3 Trends in Sustainable Use and Management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Utilization and Development 3.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 3.2 Current Trends in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 3.3 Thermochemical Routes for Biomass Conversion to Fuels 3.3.1 Sexual Propagation 3.3.2 Asexual Propagation 3.3.3 Micropropagation 3.4 Future Remarks 3.5 Conclusion References Chapter 4 Threatened and Endangered Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Diversity of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Used Worldwide 4.2.1 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in China 4.2.2 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in India 4.2.3 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Indonesia 4.2.4 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Malaysia 4.2.5 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Nepal 4.2.6 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Pakistan 4.2.7 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Philippines 4.2.8 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Sri Lanka 4.2.9 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Thailand 4.2.10 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in United States 4.2.11 The Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Vietnam 4.3 Threats to Medicinal Plants Biodiversity 4.3.1 Habitat Destruction 4.3.2 Over-Exploitation 4.3.3 Genetic Erosion 4.3.4 Bioprospecting and Biopiracy 4.3.5 Lack of Effective Regulation 4.4 Examples of Threatened Species 4.4.1 Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga Racemosa) 4.4.2 Goldenseal (Hydrastis Canadensis) 4.4.3 Hawaiian Sandalwood (Santalum Ellipticum) 4.4.4 American Ginseng (Panax Quinquefolius, Panacis Quinquefolis) 4.4.5 Asian Ginseng (Panax Ginseng) 4.4.6 Bloodroot (Sanguinaria Candadensis) 4.4.7 Wild Yam (Dioscorea Villosa) 4.4.8 Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus Rosea) 4.4.9 Eyebright (Euphrasia Officinalis) 4.4.10 Slippery Elm (Ulmus Rubra) 4.5 Need for Conservation 4.6 Conservation Strategies for Medicinal Plant Resources 4.6.1 In Situ Conservation Approach 4.6.1.1 Protected Areas 4.6.1.2 On-Farm Conservation 4.6.2 Ex Situ Conservation Approach 4.6.2.1 Botanical Gardens 4.6.2.2 Gene Banks 4.6.3 Cultivation Practice 4.6.3.1 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) 4.7 Conclusion References Chapter 5 Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology, and Traditional Uses of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Ethnobotany 5.3 Ethnopharmacology 5.4 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 5.5 Herbal Medicine 5.6 Traditional Healers 5.7 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Modern Medicine 5.8 Trade of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 5.9 Conservation and Sustainable Uses of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 5.10 Conclusion References Chapter 6 Wild Edible Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Ancient Traditions 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Worldwide History of the Use of Aromatic Plants 6.3 Wild Edible Plants in the Indian Tradition 6.4 Wild Edible Plants in Chinese Tradition 6.5 Wild Edible Plants in Arabian Tradition 6.6 Use of MAPs: Current Perspective in Human and Veterinary Medication, Plant Longevity, and Safety Concerns 6.7 Conclusion References Chapter 7 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnopharmacognosy: Current Perspectives and Future Prospects 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Safety in Ethnopharmacology and Ethnopharmacognosy and Importance of Double-Blind Clinical Trials 7.3 Useful Plant Substances in Ethnopharmacology and Ethnopharmacognosy: Primary and Secondary Metabolites 7.4 From Ethnopharmacology and Ethnopharmacognosy to Drug Design 7.5 Pharmaceutical Effects of Medicinal Plants 7.5.1 Anticancer Effects 7.5.2 Antioxidant Effects 7.5.3 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 7.6 Future Directions in Ethnopharmacology and Ethnopharmacognosy References Chapter 8 Phytochemistry and Biosynthesis of Phytochemicals 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Biosynthesis of Phytochemicals 8.2.1 Acetate Pathway 8.2.2 Mevalonate Pathway 8.2.3 Shikimate Pathway 8.3 Drugs From Phytochemicals 8.3.1 Antimalarial From Phytochemicals 8.3.2 Anticancer From Phytochemicals 8.3.3 Painkiller From Phytochemicals 8.3.4 Potential Phytochemicals for Drug Development 8.4 Conclusion References Chapter 9 Phytochemicals as Immunomodulators, Nutraceuticals, and Pharma Foods 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Classification of Phytochemicals 9.2.1 Alkaloids 9.2.2 Flavonoids and Glycosides 9.2.3 Phenolic Acids 9.2.4 Carotenoids 9.3 Role of Phytochemicals in Immunomodulation 9.4 Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals and Pharma Food 9.4.1 Role of Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals and theirs Health-Promoting Action 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10 Phytochemotaxonomy: Role of Phytochemicals in Plant Classification 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Phytochemicals in Phytochemotaxonomy 10.2.1 Primary Metabolites 10.2.1.1 Fatty Acids 10.2.1.2 Protein and Amino Acids 10.2.1.3 Carbohydrates 10.2.1.4 Alkanes and Alkynes 10.2.1.5 Carotenoids 10.2.2 Secondary Metabolites 10.2.2.1 Phenolics 10.2.2.2 Non-Flavonoids and Flavonoids 10.2.2.3 Essential Oils and Volatile Terpenes 10.2.2.4 Sesquiterpene 10.2.2.5 Diterpenes 10.2.2.6 Triterpene Saponins 10.2.2.7 Alkaloids 10.2.2.8 Glycosides 10.2.2.9 Non-Protein (Non-Proteinogenic) Amino Acids 10.2.3 Macromolecules 10.2.4 Conclusion References Chapter 11 Biological Roles and Mechanism of Phytochemicals in Disease Prevention and Treatment 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biological Activities of Phytochemicals 11.3 Bioavailability of Phytochemicals 11.4 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Phytochemicals 11.5 Antioxidant Activity of Phytochemicals 11.6 Anti-Cancer Activity of Phytochemicals 11.7 Neuroprotective Effect of Phytochemicals 11.8 Protective Action on Cardiovascular Diseases 11.9 Conclusions and Future Directions References Chapter 12 Metabolomics of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Value of MAPs as Raw Materials 12.2.1 Aegle Marmelos 12.2.2 Prunus Africana 12.2.3 Ficus Religiosa 12.2.4 Mangifera Indica 12.2.5 Ananas Comosus 12.2.6 Ocimum Sanctum 12.2.7 Allium Sativum 12.2.8 Curcuma Longa 12.3 Biochemical and Physiological Features 12.4 Active Substances of MAPs 12.4.1 Alkaloids 12.4.2 Glycosides 12.4.3 Essential Oils 12.4.4 Miscellaneous Substances 12.5 Bioactive Properties of MAPs 12.5.1 Antioxidant Activity 12.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity 12.5.3 Antitumor Activity 12.6 Thermo-Chemical Routes for Biomass Conversion to Fuel 12.7 Pyrolysis 12.8 Types of Pyrolysis 12.8.1 Slow Pyrolysis 12.8.2 Fast Pyrolysis 12.8.3 Flash Pyrolysis 12.9 Products of Pyrolysis 12.9.1 Bio-Char 12.9.2 Syngas 12.9.3 Bio-Oil 12.10 Use of MAPs References Chapter 13 Methods in Ethnopharmacology: Phytochemical Extraction, Isolation, and Detection Techniques 13.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 13.2 Extraction: A Key Step in Phytochemical Analysis 13.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 13.2.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) 13.2.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 13.2.4 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 13.2.5 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 13.3 Analytical Spectroscopic Techniques 13.3.1 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 13.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 13.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) 13.3.4 Mass Spectrometry for Chemical Compounds Identification 13.3.5 Solid-State Techniques for the Analysis of the Separated Components 13.4 Analytical Separative Techniques 13.4.1 Liquid Chromatography (LC) 13.4.2 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) 13.4.3 Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography (2D LC) 13.4.4 Gas Chromatography (GC) 13.4.5 Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography (2D GC) 13.4.6 High-Speed Counter-Current-Chromatography (HSCCC) 13.4.7 Capillary Electrophoresis References Chapter 14 Chromatographic Techniques in Phytochemistry and Analytical Techniques in Elemental Profiling 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Antioxidant Screening Using Hyphenated Chromatographic Techniques 14.3 Antioxidants Found in Flowers, Seeds, and Peels 14.4 Elemental Profiling 14.5 Conclusion References Chapter 15 NMR-Based Metabolomics and Hyphenated NMR Techniques 15.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 15.2 Applications of [sup(1)]H NMR-Based Metabolomic Techniques 15.2.1 Metabolic Profiling/Monitoring 15.2.1.1 Identification of Bioactive Metabolites 15.3 Hyphenated NMR Techniques 15.3.1 Application of Hyphenated [sup(1)]H NMR Techniques 15.3.1.1 Ethnopharmacological 15.4 Conclusion References Chapter 16 Animal Models in Phytopharmacology and Toxicological Testing of Plant Products 16.1 Animal Models: Historical Perspective 16.1.1 The Mouse 16.1.2 The Rat 16.1.3 The Rabbit 16.1.4 Zebrafish 16.2 Plant Products: What is their Origin and Importance? 16.3 Animal Models in Phytopharmacology and Toxicological Testing 16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References Chapter 17 Computational Phytochemistry in Drug Discovery: Databases and Tools 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Databases 17.2.1 Protein Data Bank (PDB) 17.2.2 UniProt 17.2.3 TarFisDock 17.2.4 Potential Drug Target Database 17.2.4.1 PharmMapper 17.2.4.2 SuperPred 17.2.4.3 PharmTargetDB 17.2.4.4 DrugBank 17.2.4.5 BindingDB 17.2.4.6 PDBBind 17.2.4.7 Techniques 17.2.4.8 Miscellaneous 17.2.4.9 Notable Findings References Chapter 18 Nanoformulations and Herbal Drug Development 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Herbal Medicines 18.3 Pharmacokinetics in Herbal Medicine 18.4 Importance of Pharmacokinetics 18.5 Nanoformulations 18.6 Liposomes 18.7 Lipid Nanoparticles 18.8 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) 18.9 Phytosomes 18.10 Nanoemulsions 18.10.1 Advantages of Nanoemulsion 18.10.2 Transferosomes 18.10.3 Features and Limitation of Transferosomes 18.10.4 Niosomes 18.10.5 Ethosomes 18.10.6 Cyclodextrins 18.10.7 Structure of Cyclodextrins 18.10.8 Polymeric Nanomicelles 18.10.9 Surfactant Nanomicelle 18.10.10 Polyionic Nanomicelle 18.10.11 Safety Considerations 18.10.12 Herbal Drug Loading 18.10.13 High-Pressure Homogenization Techniques 18.10.14 Application of Nanoformulations References Chapter 19 Novel Phytochemicals Targeting the Signaling Pathways of Anticancer Stem Cell: A Novel Approach Against Cancer 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Origin, Key Characteristics of CSCs, and Their Similarities and Differences with Normal Stem Cells 19.2.1 Origin of CSCs 19.2.2 Key Characteristics of a CSC 19.2.3 Similarities of Cancer and Normal Stem Cells 19.2.4 Differences Between Normal Stem Cells and CSCs 19.3 Signaling Pathways of CSCs/Self-Renewal Pathways 19.3.1 Notch 19.3.2 Wnt/β-catenin 19.3.3 Hedgehog 19.3.4 Hippo 19.3.5 Other Signaling Pathways 19.3.5.1 PI3K/Akt 19.3.5.2 MAPK/ERK 19.3.5.3 JAK-STAT 19.3.5.4 NF-κB 19.3.5.5 TGF-β/SMAD 19.3.5.6 PPAR 19.4 Markers Involved in CSCs 19.4.1 Cluster of Differentiation as Surface Markers for CSCs 19.4.1.1 CD44 19.4.1.2 CD24 and CD29 19.4.1.3 CD133 19.4.1.4 CD90 19.4.1.5 Effect of Other CD CSC Markers 19.4.2 Markers Other Than CDs 19.4.2.1 EpCAM 19.4.2.2 CLL-1 19.4.2.3 TIM3, Galactin-9, and BMI-1 19.4.3 Intracellular Markers 19.4.3.1 ALDH 19.4.3.2 NANOG 19.4.3.3 Oct-3/4 19.4.3.4 SOX2 19.4.3.5 LGR5 19.5 Phytochemicals as CSCs Modulators 19.5.1 Curcumin 19.5.2 Lycopene 19.5.3 Berberine 19.5.4 Quercetin 19.5.5 Sulforaphane 19.5.6 Resveratrol 19.5.7 Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) 19.5.8 Genistein 19.5.9 Silibinin 19.5.10 Parthenolide 19.5.11 Kaempferol 19.6 Conclusion References Chapter 20 Evolving Challenges and Opportunities in Plant-Based Drug Discovery and Development 20.1 Plant-Derived Small Molecules 20.1.1 Decline and Rise, Pitfalls, and Chance of Plant-Based Drug Discovery 20.2 Selection of Botanical Sources 20.2.1 Experimental Approaches 20.2.2 In Silico Approaches 20.2.3 'Omics' Approaches 20.3 Plant Extracts Preparation 20.3.1 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 20.3.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 20.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction 20.3.4 Super-Critical Fluid Extraction 20.3.5 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction and Ionic Liquid-Based Extraction 20.3.6 Micellar Extraction 20.3.7 Analytical Fingerprint of Crude Extracts 20.4 Identification of Secondary Metabolites Endowed With Biological Activity 20.4.1 Bio-Guided Fractionation 20.4.2 Direct Phytochemical Isolation 20.4.3 Cell-Based Screening 20.4.4 Equilibrium Dialysis, Microdialysis, and Ultrafiltration 20.4.5 Chromatographic-Based Approaches 20.4.6 Structural Elucidation of Bioactive Secondary Metabolites 20.5 Plant-Derived Recombinant Proteins 20.6 Production and Screening Approaches 20.7 Extraction Techniques 20.8 Pre-Purification Procedures 20.8.1 Clarification 20.8.2 Other Procedures 20.9 Purification Technologies 20.9.1 Chromatographic Methods 20.10 Analytical Characterization Procedures 20.10.1 Primary Sequence and Stability 20.10.2 Glycosylation Profiling 20.10.3 Aggregation 20.11 Conclusion References Index