Ethics and the Archaeology of Violence (Ethical Archaeologies: The Politics of Social Justice Book 2)

This volume examines the distinctive and highly problematic ethical questions surrounding conflict archaeology. By bringing together sophisticated analyses and pertinent case studies from around the world it aims to address the problems facing archaeologists working in areas of violent conflict, past and present. Of all the contentious issues within archaeology and heritage, the study of conflict and work within conflict zones are undoubtedly the most highly charged and hotly debated, both within and outside the discipline. Ranging across the conflict zones of the world past and present, this book attempts to raise the level of these often fractious debates by locating them within ethical frameworks. The issues and debates in this book range across a range of ethical models, including deontological, teleological and virtue ethics. The chapters address real-world ethical conundrums that confront archaeologists in a diversity of countries, including Israel/Palestine, Iran, Uruguay, Argentina, Rwanda, Germany and Spain. They all have in common recent, traumatic experiences of war and dictatorship. The chapters provide carefully argued, thought-provoking analyses and examples that will be of real practical use to archaeologists in formulating and addressing ethical dilemmas in a confident and constructive manner. Ethical Archaeologies: The Politics of Social Justice 6 Contents 8 Contributors 10 About the Authors 12 About the Editors 18 Chapter 1: Introduction: The Only Way is Ethics 19 Introduction 19 Background 20 Archaeologies of Violence 20 Archaeological Ethics 21 Key Themes in This Volume 23 Violence and Structural Violence 23 The Temporality of Ethics 25 Stakeholder Communities 26 The Responsibilities of Archaeologists 29 Conclusion 31 References 32 Chapter 2: Ethics in Action: A Viewpoint from Israel/Palestine 36 Who Needs Ethics in Archaeology? 36 Archaeological Codes of Ethics 40 Archaeology: Why and for Whom? 42 Ethical Archaeological Practice in the Community 44 Archaeology and Conflict Resolution at Silwan 46 Conclusion 47 References 48 Chapter 3: Archaeological Ethics and Violence in Post-­genocide Rwanda 50 Introduction 50 Background: Post-violent-conflict Archaeology 51 Violence and Ethics 52 Archaeology in Post-genocide Rwanda 54 The Post-genocide Official Historical Narrative 54 The Post-genocide Governmental Response to the Official Historical Narrative 56 Archaeology and the Official Historical Narrative 57 Re-constructing the Past in Post-genocide Rwanda: An Archaeological Contribution 59 Politics, Violence and Archaeology 60 From Politics to Ethics 60 Ethics, Violence and Archaeology 62 Post-violent Conflict 62 Persisting Structural Violence 63 Future Violence 63 References 64 Chapter 4: All Our Findings Are Under Their Boots! The Monologue of Violence in Iranian Archaeology 67 Introduction 67 Our Findings Under Their Boots 68 Agents and Parameters Involved in Violence/Constituting Violence in Iranian Archaeology 69 Historical Background 69 Archaeology as a Governmental Matter 73 Archaeologists 76 Archaeological Legal Issues 79 Administrative Issues 79 Educational System 80 Professional Ethics 82 Discussion: Iranian Archaeology and Archaeologists as Victims of Violence 82 References 84 Chapter 5: Archaeology of Historical Conflicts, Colonial Oppression, and Political Violence in Uruguay 87 Introduction 87 Social Oppression, Economic Violence, and Archaeological Ethics 89 The Search for the Disappeared 93 From Operation Condor to Operation Carrot 98 Discussion and Conclusions 100 References 102 Chapter 6: Discussing the Spaces of Memory in Buenos Aires: Official Narratives and the Challenges of Site Management 104 Introduction 104 Some Concepts 106 Memory, Space, Narrative 107 Ethical Considerations 110 Spaces of Memory Officially Recognized in Buenos Aires 114 Sites Dating Back to the Latest Military Dictatorship 117 Former Places of Repression 117 Former Places of Resistance 118 Spaces Dating Back to the Last Years of Democracy 119 Parks 119 Other Places 120 Final Remarks 121 References 125 Chapter 7: Ethics, Archaeology, and Civil Conflict: The Case of Spain 128 Introduction 128 Ethical Choices in a Civil War Context 130 The Dead 131 The Battlefields 134 The Moral Economy of Spanish Civil War Research 137 Case Studies 139 Case 1. When Archaeologists Become Bunkerologists 139 Case 2. When Archaeologists Become Political Activists 141 The Archaeologist’s Perspective 141 The Ethnographer’s Perspective 144 Case 3. When Archaeologists Become Memory Guerrilla Fighters 147 Conclusions 148 References 149 Chapter 8: A Gate to a Darker World: Excavating at the Tempelhof Airport 152 Tempelhof Airport: “Gate to the World” 152 Genesis of the Archaeological Project 154 Archaeology and Tempelhof Airport 155 First Results 160 Concluding Thoughts: Ethical Dimensions of an Archaeology of Conflict 163 References 166 Chapter 9: Archaeology, National Socialism and Rehabilitation: The Case of Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990) 168 “National Socialist Archaeology”: Ideology, Politics and Organisational Polyvalence 169 Science and Service in the National Socialist State: the Pre- and Protohistorian Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990) 170 Brittany’s Megaliths and the Bayeux Tapestry: Jankuhn’s Activities on the Western Front 171 “Safeguarding” Prehistory in Times of War: Jankuhn’s Activities on the Southeastern Front 172 Denazification as Rehabilitation 174 Pragmatism or a Second “Faustian Bargain”? 176 References 178 Chapter 10: The Ethics of Public Engagement in the Archaeology of Modern Conflict 181 Introduction 181 What Does Public Engagement Include? 182 Memory Dynamics and Archaeological Sites 184 Who Are the Publics for Conflict Archaeology? 185 Large-Scale International Conflicts 185 Civil Wars, Insurgencies, Occupations and Terrorism 186 Protests, Strikes and Civil Unrest 186 Genocides and Crimes Against Humanity 187 Other Factors 187 Ethical Challenges in Public Engagement 188 Excavating for the Cameras on the Western Front 188 Exhuming Mass Graves in Spain 190 Conclusion 192 References 193 Chapter 11: Partnership Versus Guns: Military Advocacy of Peaceful Approaches for Cultural Property Protection 195 The Challenge 195 Background 195 Introduction to the Ethical Questions and Value Systems 197 Comparison of Missions and Goals 198 Response of the Academic Archaeologists: Three Groups 198 Academic Group One: Criticism and Advocacy for Militarization of Site Protection 199 Academic Group One Continued: Research Concerning Effects of Conflict 202 Group Two, Abstract Discussion Concerning Engagement with the Military 203 Academic Group Three: Proactive Support for Military Education and Operations Planning 204 Defense Archaeologist Response to Conflict and Military Operations 205 Defense Group One: Domestic Cultural Resources Management 205 Defense Group Two: Becoming a Part of the Deployment Process 206 Defense Group Two: Preventing Inadvertent Damage Through Military Education 206 Defense Group Three: Archaeologists in Uniform 207 In Summary, Partnership Versus Guns 208 References 209 Chapter 12: Cognitive Dissonance and the Military-Archaeology Complex 212 Introduction 212 Background 213 WWII 214 United Nations International Criminal Tribunals 215 Iraq 217 Spanish Civil War 220 Conclusion 222 References 224 Chapter 13: Working as a Forensic Archaeologist and/or Anthropologist in Post-conflict Contexts: A Consideration of Professional Responsibilities to the Missing, the Dead and Their Relatives 227 Introduction 227 The Realities of Practising as a “Forensic” Archaeologist/Anthropologist 229 Making Choices About Where to Work 232 Responsibilities to the Families of Victims 233 Standards and Local Capacity 235 Occupational Health and Safety 236 Conclusion 237 References 237 Chapter 14: Virtues Impracticable and Extremely Difficult: The Human Rights of Subsistence Diggers 241 The Causes of Illicit Digging 242 Stopping Looting: Shooting Looters in Iraq 243 Deterring Looting: Armed Guards Around the World 244 Reducing Illicit Digging in Mali 246 The Human Rights of Subsistence Diggers 247 Ethical Implications 248 References 249 Index 252