Environmental Toxicology (Cambridge Environmental Chemistry Series, Series Number 11)

Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook dealing with most aspects of the subject, from the molecular to the ecosystem level. Early chapters deal with basic and advanced concepts, methods and approaches. The next tier discusses the environmental toxicology of individual or groups of substances. The third part addresses complex issues, in which many of the concepts, approaches and substances covered in earlier tiers are incorporated. The fourth part includes chapters on risk assessment, rehabilitation and regulatory toxicology. The book concludes with a summary of present and future areas of emphasis. Each chapter contains a comprehensive list of references and further reading, case studies from different jurisdictions, and student exercises. Environmental Toxicology is primarily a textbook for undergraduate and graduate students in environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology, applied ecology, environmental management, and risk assessment. It will also be valuable for specialists in ecology, environmental science, and chemistry. Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 5 Title......Page 7 Copyright......Page 8 Dedication......Page 9 Contents......Page 11 Foreword......Page 19 Preface......Page 21 Abbreviations......Page 23 Acknowledgements......Page 27 1.1 The context......Page 29 1.2 The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology......Page 30 1.3 Social aspects: The environmental movement......Page 33 1.4 Social aspects: Regulation......Page 37 1.6 The role of technology......Page 44 1.7 Questions......Page 46 1.8 References......Page 47 1.9 Further reading......Page 48 2.1.2 An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology......Page 49 2.2 Assessment of toxicity......Page 52 2.2.1 The dose-response......Page 53 2.2.3 Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays......Page 59 2.2.4 The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity......Page 61 2.2.5 Statistical considerations......Page 66 TIME RESPONSE (TIME-TO-DEATH) MODELS......Page 69 2.2.6 Comparative bioassays......Page 71 2.2.7 Sediment toxicity assays......Page 77 2.3 Toxicity at the molecular level......Page 78 DNA LESIONS......Page 80 MUTAGENESIS......Page 81 2.3.2 Genotoxicity assays......Page 86 2.3.4 The concept of threshold toxicity......Page 87 2.3.6 Receptors......Page 89 2.4 Questions......Page 93 2.5 References......Page 94 3.1 General considerations......Page 98 3.2 Route of toxicant uptake......Page 99 3.2.1 Skin......Page 100 3.2.2 Lungs......Page 101 3.2.3 Gills......Page 102 3.2.4 Digestive system......Page 104 3.2.5 Toxicant uptake by plants......Page 105 3.3 Uptake at the tissue and cellular level......Page 106 COMPARTMENTAL MODELS......Page 108 3.3.2 Single-compartment model......Page 109 3.3.3 Two-compartment model......Page 111 3.3.4 Volume of distribution......Page 114 3.3.5 Transporter-mediated transport......Page 115 3.3.6 Lethal body burden (critical body residue)......Page 118 SAMPLE PROBLEMS......Page 121 3.4 Questions......Page 122 3.5 References......Page 123 3.6 Further reading......Page 124 4.1 Introduction......Page 125 4.2 The general concepts and principles for biological indicators......Page 128 4.3.1 Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment......Page 134 4.3.2 Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon......Page 137 MECHANISMS OF TOLERANCE......Page 141 4.4 Biological scale......Page 144 4.4.1 Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical indicators......Page 145 4.4.2 Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical markers......Page 147 MONOOXYGENASE (MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASE) ENZYME......Page 148 PHASE II (CONJUGATIVE) ENZYMES (GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE)......Page 149 METALLOTHIONEINS......Page 150 STRESS PROTEINS......Page 151 TISSUE PATHOLOGY......Page 153 SCOPE FOR GROWTH......Page 154 INDICATORS......Page 155 MONITORS......Page 160 4.4.4 Surrogates for ecosystem indicators......Page 170 4.5.1 Interspecies effects of toxic substances......Page 171 4.5.2 Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected by toxic substances......Page 174 4.5.3 Population and community end-points......Page 175 POPULATION-BASED END-POINTS......Page 176 COMMUNITY INDICES......Page 178 4.5.4 Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction?......Page 186 4.6.1 The concepts of modelling......Page 188 4.6.2 Mass balance models......Page 192 1. THE NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA: EVALUATIVE ENVIRONMENTS......Page 194 2. THE STEADY-STATE MASS BALANCE MODEL......Page 197 EFFECTS MODELLING......Page 199 4.6.3 Some other models for use in environmental toxicology......Page 200 4.6.4 Advantages, limitations, and pitfalls in the modelling for environmental toxicology......Page 201 4.7 Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level responses......Page 202 MESOCOSMS......Page 203 MICROCOSMS......Page 205 4.7.2 Whole system manipulations......Page 206 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY......Page 211 THE COMPUTER......Page 213 CHOICE OF TEST ORGANISMS OR SYSTEMS......Page 214 Case Study 4.1. Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment.........Page 218 Conclusions......Page 219 Chemical effects......Page 221 Morphology......Page 224 Case Study 4.4. Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air.........Page 225 Forage plants......Page 227 The annual indicator plot programme......Page 228 Case Study 4.5. Chesapeake Bay: A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions......Page 229 Case Study 4.6. The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing......Page 230 Case Study 4.7. The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes Area......Page 231 4.11 Questions......Page 235 4.12 References......Page 237 4.13 Further reading......Page 245 5.1 Introduction......Page 246 5.2.1 Taxonomic group......Page 247 5.3.1 Temperature......Page 249 5.3.2 pH and alkalinity......Page 252 5.3.3 Salinity......Page 255 5.3.4 Hardness......Page 257 5.3.5 Chemical mixtures......Page 258 5.3.6 Dissolved organic carbon......Page 262 5.4 Role of particulates......Page 264 5.4.1 The importance of food......Page 267 5.6 Implications for future environmental regulation......Page 270 5.7 Questions......Page 272 5.8 References......Page 273 5.9 Further reading......Page 276 6.1 Introduction......Page 277 6.2.1 General properties of metals and metalloids......Page 281 6.2.2 The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals in the environment......Page 282 6.2.3 The biological availability of metals in the environment......Page 284 RECENT TECHNICAL ADVANCES FOR DETERMINING METAL SPECIES......Page 290 BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS FOR MEASURING THE AVAILABILITY OF METALS......Page 293 MEASUREMENTS OF METAL CONTENT OR UPTAKE IN LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE FIELD......Page 294 6.2.6 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals in the environment......Page 295 6.3.1 Analytical chemistry......Page 297 6.3.2 Historical records......Page 298 6.3.3 Spatial records and source signatures......Page 299 6.4.1 The background to environmental concerns for mercury......Page 302 6.4.2 The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour of mercury......Page 303 6.4.3 The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk......Page 310 6.5.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead......Page 315 6.5.2 The environmental transport and behaviour of lead......Page 318 HUMAN HEALTH......Page 319 OTHER BIOTA......Page 324 6.6.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium......Page 326 6.6.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium......Page 327 6.6.3 The toxicity of cadmium......Page 328 6.7.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper......Page 329 6.7.3 The toxicity of copper......Page 330 6.8.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel......Page 332 6.8.3 The toxicity of nickel......Page 333 6.9.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium......Page 334 6.9.3 The toxicity of selenium......Page 335 6.10.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus......Page 336 PLANTS......Page 341 ANIMALS......Page 342 6.12 Questions......Page 343 6.13 References......Page 344 Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids......Page 347 1. Aluminium......Page 348 2. Arsenic......Page 350 3. Cadmium......Page 352 4. Chromium......Page 354 5. Copper......Page 356 6. Iron......Page 358 7. Lead......Page 360 8. Manganese......Page 362 9. Mercury......Page 364 10. Nickel......Page 366 11. Selenium......Page 369 12. Silver......Page 371 13. Vanadium......Page 372 14. Zinc......Page 374 7.1 The nature of organic compounds......Page 377 7.1.1 Behaviour and transport......Page 381 7.2 Pesticides......Page 383 DDT......Page 384 CYCLODIENES......Page 385 HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE......Page 386 PYRETHROIDS......Page 387 7.2.2 Organophosphate pesticides......Page 389 7.2.3 Carbamate pesticides......Page 390 7.2.4 Phenoxyacid herbicides......Page 391 7.2.6 Triazine herbicides......Page 393 7.3.1 Chemistry and effects......Page 394 7.3.2 Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs......Page 397 7.4 Dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans......Page 398 7.5.2 Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds......Page 400 7.5.3 Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health......Page 403 7.5.4 Environmental influences on breast cancer......Page 404 7.5.5 Peroxisome proliferases......Page 405 7.5.6 Pharmaceuticals in the environment......Page 406 7.6 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons......Page 407 7.7 Petroleum hydrocarbons......Page 409 7.8 Organotins......Page 412 7.9.1 Introduction......Page 413 REGULATION OF CYTOCHROME P450 INDUCTION......Page 414 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 415 7.9.3 Important mixed function oxidase reactions......Page 417 MFO INHIBITION......Page 421 7.9.4 Reductions......Page 422 7.9.5 Phase II reactions......Page 423 7.10 Environmental mobility of organic compounds......Page 424 RATE OF DEGRADATION......Page 426 Case Study 7.1. Pathology of beluga whales in the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, Canada......Page 427 Case Study 7.2. Recovery of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the Great Lakes......Page 428 Case Study 7.3. Feminisation of fish in English rivers......Page 429 7.12 Questions......Page 431 7.13 References......Page 433 8.1 Introduction......Page 436 8.2.1 What is ionising radiation?......Page 437 8.2.2 Units of measurement......Page 440 8.3.1 Molecular interactions......Page 441 8.3.2 Effect of radiation on the immune system......Page 443 8.4 Assessment of risk from radiation......Page 444 8.5.1 Background radiation......Page 449 8.5.2 Electricity production from nuclear power......Page 450 ENRICHMENT, CONVERSION, AND FUEL FABRICATION......Page 451 IN-CORE FUEL MANAGEMENT......Page 452 FUEL REPROCESSING......Page 453 LOW-LEVEL WASTE......Page 454 TRITIUM (3H)......Page 455 RADON (222Rn)......Page 456 IODINE (131I)......Page 457 8.6 Ecological effects of radiation......Page 458 Case Study 8.1. The Chernobyl accident......Page 459 8.9 References......Page 461 9.1 Introduction and rationale......Page 463 9.2.1 The issue......Page 464 EXPLORATION......Page 465 MINING......Page 466 9.2.3 Substances of concern that are mobilised or formed and released during mining, smelting, and other purification.........Page 467 SMELTING......Page 468 9.3.1 The issue......Page 474 9.3.2 Substances of concern I: Nutrient enrichment from pulp mills......Page 475 CHLORATE......Page 476 9.3.4 The environmental toxicology of mill effluent......Page 477 9.3.5 Mitigation: Means for minimising the impacts of pulp mills......Page 478 9.4.1 The issue of producing electricity from fossil fuel......Page 479 9.4.2 The issue of producing electricity from nuclear energy......Page 480 9.4.3 The issue of hydroelectric power......Page 486 9.4.4 Socioeconomic considerations......Page 487 9.5.2 The greenhouse effect......Page 490 9.5.3 Substances of concern: Greenhouse gases and their sources......Page 491 9.5.4 Global climate models......Page 492 9.6.1 The issue......Page 493 9.6.2 Substances of concern: photochemical oxidants......Page 494 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 498 9.6.4 Substances of concern: Acid precipitation......Page 499 9.6.5 The environmental toxicology of acid precipitation......Page 500 9.7.1 The issue......Page 502 9.7.2 Substances of concern: Fertilisers......Page 505 9.7.3 The environmental toxicology of fertilisers......Page 506 HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS AS A CONSEQUENCE OF NUTRIENT RUNOFF......Page 509 9.7.4 Substances of concern: Pesticides......Page 511 PESTICIDE OCCURRENCE......Page 513 9.7.5 The environmental toxicology of pesticides......Page 514 9.8.1 The issue......Page 515 9.8.2 The environmental toxicology of oil......Page 517 9.8.4 Use of oil dispersants......Page 521 Case Study 9.1. The Florida Everglades: A case study of eutrophication related to agriculture and restoration......Page 522 9.10 References......Page 523 9.11 Further reading......Page 527 10.1 The context and rationale for ecological risk assessment......Page 528 THE PARADIGM......Page 530 PROBLEM FORMULATION......Page 531 ANALYSIS......Page 533 RISK CHARACTERISATION......Page 535 10.3 Site-specific risk assessment......Page 536 10.4 Dealing with uncertainty......Page 538 10.5 Factors triggering risk assessment......Page 539 Case Study 10.1. Risk assessment of the Clark River Superfund site......Page 540 Case Study 10.2. The Belle Park Island landfill site, Cataraqui Park, Kingston, Ontario: Site-specific risk assessment......Page 542 Case Study 10.3. An environmental risk assessment for ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride in the Netherlands......Page 544 10.7 References......Page 546 10.8 Further reading......Page 547 11.1 The context for site contamination and recovery......Page 548 11.2 Exposure and hazard......Page 549 11.3 Site use......Page 550 11.4.1 Removal of the source of contamination......Page 551 11.4.2 Restriction of site use......Page 553 11.4.4 Removal of the contaminated material......Page 554 11.4.6 In situ treatment......Page 555 11.5 Remedial action plans......Page 556 11.6 Responsibilities......Page 557 11.7 Routes for recovery......Page 558 11.8 Recent regulatory approaches to contaminated sites......Page 560 Case Study 11.1. The Thames Estuary: Compound pollution and recovery......Page 563 Case Study 11.2. Lake Erie recovery......Page 566 Case Study 11.3. Deacidification trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Ontario, 1973–1992......Page 568 Case Study 11.4. The Inco Mine Tailings reclamation, Sudbury, Canada: Ecosystem reconstruction......Page 570 Case Study 11.5. Clean-up of lead-contaminated sites: The Ontario urban clean-up experience......Page 573 11.10 References......Page 575 12.1 Introduction......Page 578 COMMON LAW......Page 579 STATUTORY LAW......Page 580 12.3.1 Types of approach......Page 581 12.3.2 Objectives, standards, and related concepts......Page 584 GUIDELINES......Page 585 STANDARDS......Page 586 12.3.3 Risk assessment in a regulatory context......Page 589 12.3.4 Voluntary systems of regulation......Page 590 ARET IN CANADA......Page 591 THE EPA 33/50 INITIATIVE......Page 592 BILATERAL AGREEMENTS......Page 593 MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS......Page 594 12.4.1 Types of law......Page 597 12.4.2 The common law......Page 598 12.5 Federal statutes......Page 599 12.5.1 The United Kingdom and Europe......Page 607 12.5.3 The United States of America......Page 615 Case Study 12.2. Implementation of the Basel Convention: Turning back waste from Hungary......Page 616 12.8 References......Page 617 12.9 Further reading......Page 618 13.1 Introduction......Page 619 13.2.1 Expressing toxic action......Page 620 13.2.2 Bioavailability and uptake pathways as management tools......Page 624 13.2.3 Pathways/vectors of chemical exposure......Page 625 13.4 The question of biological scale......Page 628 13.5 Genotoxicity......Page 630 13.6 Society and the environment......Page 631 13.7 References......Page 633 Glossary......Page 636 Index......Page 649 Environmental Toxicology Is A Introductory Textbook Designed For Undergraduate And Graduate Students Of This Subject.--jacket. The Emergence Of Environmental Toxicology As Science -- The Historical Background: Classical Toxicology, Ecotoxicology, And Environmental Toxicology -- Social Aspects: The Environmental Movement -- Social Aspects: Regulation -- Education In Environmental Toxicology -- The Role Of Technology -- The Science Of Environmental Toxicology: Concepts And Definitions -- The Development Of Environmental Toxicology -- An Historical Perspective On The Science Of Environmental Toxicology -- An Evolutionary Perspective On Environmental Toxicology -- Assessment Of Toxicity -- The Dose-response -- The Acute Toxicity Bioassay -- Subacute (chronic) Toxicity Assays -- The Relationship Between Acute And Chronic Toxicity -- Statistical Considerations -- Comparative Bioassays -- Sediment Toxicity Assays -- Toxicity At The Molecular Level -- Carcinogenesis -- Genotoxicity Assays -- Chromosome Studies -- The Concept Of Threshold Toxicity -- Hormesis -- Receptors -- Routes And Kinetics Of Toxicant Uptake -- General Considerations -- Route Of Toxicant Uptake -- Skin -- Lungs -- Gills -- Digestive System -- Toxicant Uptake By Plants -- Uptake At The Tissue And Cellular Level -- Toxicokinetics -- Single-compartment Model -- Two-compartment Model -- Volume Of Distribution -- Transporter-mediated Transport -- Lethal Body Burden (critical Body Residue) -- Methodological Approaches -- The General Concepts And Principles For Biological Indicators -- Tolerance And Resistance To Potentially Toxic Substances. David A. Wright, Pamela Welbourn. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Also Available On The Internet. Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook dealing with most aspects of the subject, from the molecular to the ecosystem level. Early chapters deal with basic to advanced concepts, methods and approaches. The next discusses the environmental toxicology of individual or groups of substances. The third part addresses complex issues, in which many of the concepts, approaches and substances covered in earlier parts are incorporated. The fourth part includes chapters on risk assessment, rehabilitation and regulatory toxicology. The book concludes with a summary of present and future areas of emphasis. Each chapter contains a comprehensive list of references and further reading, case studies from different jurisdictions, and student exercises. Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook dealing with all aspects of the subject. It is primarily a text for students in environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology, applied ecology, environmental management, and risk assessment. It will also be valuable for specialists in ecology, environmental science, and chemistry