Environmental Engineering: Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry, Sixth Edition

First published in 1958, Salvato's Environmental Engineering has long been the definitive reference for generations of sanitation and environmental engineers. Approaching its 50th year of continual publication in a rapidly changing field, the Sixth Edition has been fully reworked and reorganized into three separate, succinct volumes to adapt to amore complex and scientifically demanding field with dozens of specializations. Updated and reviewed by leading experts in the field, this revised edition offers new coverage of industrial solid wastes utilization and disposal, the use of surveying in environmental engineering and land use planning, and environmental assessment. Stressing the practicality and appropriateness of treatment, the Sixth Edition provides realistic solutions for the practicing public health official or environmental engineer. This volume, Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry, Sixth Edition , covers: Municipal and industrial waste and pollution including landfills and facility, office and residential sanitation, and air quality The environmental health of residential and institutional spaces such as homes and offices, including indoor air quality, sanitation, and the impact of substandard construction techniques Land use planning and forensics techniques for investigating repurposed industrial and agricultural land Air pollution and noise control Surveying and mapping for environmental engineering Content: Chapter 1 Industrial Solid Wastes Utilization and Disposal (pages 1–81): Salah M. El?Haggar Chapter 2 Residential and Institutional Environment (pages 83–175): Xudong Yang Chapter 3 Solid Waste Management (pages 177–308): George Tchobanoglous Chapter 4 Air Pollution and Noise Control (pages 309–393): Robert Jacko and Timothy La Breche Chapter 5 Surveying and Mapping for Environmental Engineering (pages 395–428): Kurt W. Bauer Chapter 6 Planning and Environmental Assessment (pages 429–524): Kurt W. Bauer

Excerpt

CHAPTER 1

WATER SUPPLY

T. DAVID CHINN Professional Engineer, Senior Vice President, HDR Engineering, Austin, Texas

INTRODUCTION

A primary requisite for good health is an adequate supply of water that is of satisfactory sanitary quality. It is also important that the water be attractive and palatable to induce its use; otherwise, consumers may decide to use water of doubtful quality from a nearby unprotected stream, well, or spring. Where a municipal water supply passes near a property, the owner of the property should be urged to connect to it because such supplies are usually under competent supervision.

When a municipal water supply is not available, the burden of developing a safe water supply rests with the owner of the property. Frequently, private supplies are so developed and operated that full protection against dangerous or objectionable pollution is not afforded. Failure to provide satisfactory water supplies in most instances must be charged either to negligence or ignorance because it generally costs no more to provide a satisfactory installation that will meet good health department standards.

The following definitions are given in the National Drinking Water Regulations as amended through July, 2002:

Public water system means either a community or noncommunity system for the provision to the public of water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances, if such system has at least 15 service connections, or regularly serves an average of at least 25 individuals daily at least 60 days out of the year. Such a term includes (1) any collection, treatment, storage, and distribution facilities under the control of the operator of such system and used primarily in connection with such system, and (2) any collection or pretreatment storage facilities not under such control which are used primarily in connection with such system.

A community water system has at least 15 service connections used by year-round residents, or regularly serves at least 25 year-round residents. These water systems generally serve cities and towns. They may also serve special residential communities, such as mobile home parks and universities, which have their own drinking water supply.

A noncommunity water system is a public water system that is not a community water system, and can be either a "transient noncommunity water system" (TWS) or a "non-transient noncommunity water system" (NTNCWS). TWSs typically serve travelers and other transients at locations such as highway rest stops, restaurants, and public parks. The system serves at least 25 people a day for at least 60 days a year, but not the same 25 people. On the other hand, NTNCWSs serve the same 25 persons for at least 6 months per year, but not year round. Some common examples of NTNCWSs are schools and factories (or other workplaces) that have their own supply of drinking water and serve 25 of the same people each day.

In 2007 there were approximately 156,000 public water systems in the United States serving water to a population of nearly 286 million Americans. There were approximately 52,110 community water systems, of which 11,449 were surface water supplies and 40,661 were groundwater supplies. There were 103,559 noncommunity water systems, of which 2557 were surface water supplies and 101,002 were groundwater supplies. Of the community water systems, 43,188 are small systems that serve populations less than 3300; 4822 are medium systems and serve populations between 3300 and 10,000; and 4100 are large systems serving populations over 10,000. In terms of numbers, the small and very small community and noncommunity water systems represent the greatest challenge to regulators and consultants—both contributing to over 88 percent of the regulatory violations in 2007.1

In addition to public water systems, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that 43.5 million people were served by their own individual water supply systems in 2000. These domestic systems are—for the most part—unregulated by either state or county health departments.

A survey made between 1975 and 1977 showed that 13 to 18 million people in communities of 10,000 and under used individual wells with high contamination rates. The effectiveness of state and local well construction standards and health department programs has a direct bearing on the extent and number of contaminated home well-water supplies in specific areas.

A safe and adequate water supply for 2.4 billion people, about one-third of the world's population, is still a dream. The availability of any reasonably clean water in the less-developed areas of the world just to wash and bathe would go a long way toward the reduction of such scourges as scabies and other skin diseases, yaws and trachoma, and high infant mortality. The lack of safe water makes high incidences of shigellosis, amebiasis, schistosomiasis, leptospirosis, infectious hepatitis, giardiasis, typhoid, and paratyphoid fever commonplace. Ten million persons suffer from dracunculiasis or guinea worm disease in Africa and parts of Asia. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that some 3.4 million people die each year from water-borne diseases caused by microbially contaminated water supplies or due to a lack of access to sanitation facilities. Tragically, over one half of these deaths are children under the age of five years old. Three-fourths of all illnesses in the developing world are associated with inadequate water and sanitation. It is believed that the provision of safe water supplies, accompanied by a program of proper excreta disposal and birth control, could vastly improve the living conditions of millions of people in developing countries of the world. In 1982, an estimated 46 percent of the population of Latin America and the Caribbean had access to piped water supply and 22 percent had access to acceptable types of sewage disposal.

The diseases associated with the consumption of contaminated water are discussed in Chapter 1 of Environmental Engineering, Sixth Edition: Prevention and Response to Water-, Food-, Soil,- and Air-Borne Disease and Illness and summarized in Table 1.4 of that volume.

Groundwater Pollution Hazard

Table 1.1 shows a classification of sources and causes of groundwater pollution. The 20 million residential cesspool and septic tank soil absorption systems alone discharge about 400 billion gallons of sewage per day into the ground, which in some instances may contribute to groundwater pollution. This is in addition to sewage from restaurants, hotels, motels, resorts, office buildings, factories, and other establishments not on public sewers. The contribution from industrial and other sources shown in Table 1.1 is unknown. It is being inventoried by the EPA, and is estimated at 900 billion gal/year, the EPA, with state participation, is also developing a groundwater protection strategy. Included in the strategy is the classification of all groundwater and protection of existing and potential drinking water sources and "ecologically vital" waters.

Groundwater pollution problems have been found in many states. Primarily, the main cause is organic chemicals, such as trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, benzene, perchlorate, gasoline (and gasoline additives such as MTBE), pesticides and soil fumigants, disease-causing organisms, and nitrates. Other sources are industrial and municipal landfills; ponds, pits, and lagoons; waste oils and highway deicing compounds; leaking underground storage tanks and pipelines; accidental spills; illegal dumping; and abandoned oil and gas wells. With 146 million people in the United States dependent on groundwater sources for drinking water, these resources must be protected from physical, chemical, radiological, and microbiological contamination.

Whereas surface water travels at velocities of feet per second, groundwater moves at velocities that range from less than a fraction of a foot per day to several feet per day. Groundwater organic and inorganic chemical contamination may persist for decades or longer and, because of the generally slow rate of movement of groundwater, may go undetected for many years. Factors that influence the movement of groundwater include the type of geological formation and its permeability, the rainfall and the infiltration, and the hydraulic gradient. The slow uniform rate of flow, usually in an elongated plume, provides little opportunity for mixing and dilution, and the usual absence of air in groundwater to decompose or break down the contaminants add to the long-lasting problem usually created. By contrast, dilution, microbial activity, surface tension and attraction to soil particles, and soil adsorptive characteristics might exist that could modify, immobilize, or attenuate the pollutant travel. More attention must be given to the prevention of ground-water pollution and to wellhead protection.

TRAVEL OF POLLUTION THROUGH THE GROUND

Identification of the source of well pollution and tracing the migration of the incriminating contaminant are usually not simple operations. The identification of a contaminant plume and its extent can be truly complex. Comprehensive hydrogeological studies and proper placement and construction of an adequate number of monitoring wells are necessary.

Geophysical methods to identify and investigate the extent and characteristics of groundwater pollution include geomagnetics, electromagnetics, electrical resistivity, ground-probing radar, and photoionization meters. Geomagnetics uses an instrument producing a magnetic field to identify and locate buried metals and subsurface materials that are not in their natural or undisturbed state. Electromagnetics equipment measures the difference in conductivity between buried materials such as the boundaries of contaminated plumes or landfills saturated with leachate and uncontaminated materials. Electrical resistivity measures the resistance a material offers to the passage of an electric current between electric probes, which can be interpreted to identify or determine rock, clay and other materials, porosity, and groundwater limits. Ground-probing radar uses radar energy to penetrate and measure reflection from the water table and subsurface materials. The reflection from the materials varies with depth and the nature of the material, such as sandy soils versus saturated clays. Photoionization meters are used to detect the presence of specific volatile organic compounds such as gasoline, and methane in a landfill, through the use of shallow boreholes. Other detection methods are remote imagery and aerial photography, including infrared.

Sampling for contaminants must be carefully designed and performed. Errors can be introduced: Sampling from an unrepresentative water level in a well, contamination of sampling equipment, and incorrect analysis procedure are some potential sources of error. The characteristics of a pollutant, the subsurface formation, the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer affected, groundwater slope, rainfall variations, and the presence of geological fractures, faults, and channels make determination of pollution travel and its sampling difficult. Geophysical techniques can help, and great care must be used in determining the number, spacing, location, and depths of sampling wells and screen entry levels. As a rule, monitoring wells and borings will be required to confirm and sample subsurface contamination.

Since the character of soil and rock, quantity of rain, depth of groundwater, rate of groundwater flow, amount and type of pollution, absorption, adsorption, biological degradation, chemical changes, and other factors usually beyond control are variable, one cannot say with certainty through what thickness or distance sewage or other pollutants must pass to be purified. Microbiological pollution travels a short distance through sandy loam or clay, but it will travel indefinite distances through coarse sand and gravel, fissured rock, dried-out cracked clay, or solution channels in limestone. Acidic conditions and lack of organics and certain elements such as iron, manganese, aluminum, and calcium in soil increase the potential of pollution travel. Chemical pollution can travel great distances.

The Public Health Service (PHS) conducted experiments at Fort Caswell, North Carolina, in a sandy soil with groundwater moving slowly through it. The sewage organisms (coliform bacteria) traveled 232 feet, and chemical pollution as indicated by uranin dye traveled 450 feet. The chemical pollution moved in the direction of the groundwater flow largely in the upper portion of the groundwater and persisted for 2-1/2 years. The pollution band did not fan out but became narrower as it moved away from the pollution source. It should be noted that in these tests there was a small draft on the experimental wells and that the soil was a sand of 0.14 mm effective size and 1.8 uniformity coefficient. It should also be noted that, whereas petroleum products tend to float on the surface, halogenated solvents gradually migrate downward.

Studies of pollution travel were made by the University of California using twenty-three 6-inch observation wells and a 12-inch gravel-packed recharge well. Diluted primary sewage was pumped through the 12-inch recharge well into a confined aquifer having an average thickness of 4.4 feet approximately 95 feet below ground surface. The aquifer was described as pea gravel and sand having a permeability of 1900 gal/ft2/day. Its average effective size was 0.56 mm and uniformity coefficient was 6.9. The medium effective size of the aquifer material from 18 wells was 0.36 mm. The maximum distance of pollution travel was 100 feet in the direction of groundwater flow and 63 feet in other directions. It was found that the travel of pollution was affected not by the groundwater velocity but by the organic mat that built up and filtered out organisms, thereby preventing them from entering the aquifer. The extent of the pollution then regressed as the organisms died away and as pollution was filtered out.

Butler, Orlob, and McGauhey made a study of the literature and reported the results of field studies to obtain more information about the underground travel of harmful bacteria and toxic chemicals. The work of other investigators indicated that pollution from dry-pit privies did not extend more than 1 to 5 feet in dry or slightly moist fine soils. However, when pollution was introduced into the underground water, test organisms (Balantidium coli) traveled to wells up to 232 feet away. Chemical pollution was observed to travel 300 to 450 feet, although chromate was reported to have traveled 1,000 feet in 3 years, and other chemical pollution 3 to 5 miles. Leachings from a garbage dump in groundwater reached wells 1,476 feet away, and a 15-year-old dump continued to pollute wells 2,000 feet away. Studies in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) report the survival of coliform organisms in soil 2 years after contamination and their extension to a depth of 9 to 13 feet, in decreasing numbers, but increasing again as groundwater was approached. The studies of Butler et al. tend to confirm previous reports and have led the authors to conclude "that the removal of bacteria from liquid percolating through a given depth of soil is inversely proportional to the particle size of the soil."

Knowledge concerning viruses in groundwater is limited, but better methodology for the detection of viruses is improving this situation. Keswick and Gerba reviewed the literature and found 9 instances in which viruses were isolated from drinking water wells and 15 instances in which viruses were isolated from beneath land treatment sites. Sand and gravel did not prevent the travel of viruses long distances in groundwater. However, fine loamy sand over coarse sand and gravel effectively removed viruses. Soil composition, including the presence of clay, is very important in virus removal, as it is in bacteria removal. The movement of viruses through soil and in groundwater requires further study. Helminth eggs and protozoa cysts do not travel great distances through most soils because of their greater size but can travel considerable distances through macropores and crevices. However, nitrate travel in groundwater may be a major inorganic chemical hazard. In addition, organic chemicals are increasingly being found in groundwater. See (1) "Removal of Gasoline, Fuel Oil, and Other Organics in an Aquifer"; (2) "Prevention and Removal of Organic Chemicals"; and (3) "Synthetic Organic Chemicals Removal" in Chapter 2.
(Continues...) Excerpted from Environmental Engineering by Nelson L. Nemerow. Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Excerpted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.
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Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site. G Opportunities Recycling Through Tiles/Bricks/Interlocks Recycling Through Composting of Sewage Sludge Recycling Through Road Pavement Layers Final Remarks: 1.8 MARBLE AND GRANITE INDUSTRY Marble and Granite waste Physical and Chemical properties of slurry Scrapes Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Cement Industry Tiles Red ceramic bricks and tiles Mortars and concrete Compressive strength Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity Polymer Concrete (PC) Other cement-based products Pavement Embankment Agglomerate marble 1.9 METAL FOUNDRY INDUSTRY Foundry Sand 1.10 IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Environmental Impacts The Problem in Egypt Potential Utilization of Slag Final Remarks 1.11 WASTE INDUSTRY Multiple Waste Recycling Industry Waste Exchange Network Recycling Industry Environmentally Balanced Industrial Complexes 1.12 MULTIPLE WASTE RECYCLING INDUSTRY Mechanical Tests Tensile Strength Test Flexural Test Environmental Tests Chemical Resistance Test Leachate of Heavy Metals Final Remarks 1.13 DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES REFERENCES CHAPTER 2 RESIDENTIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT XUDONG YANG? Tsinghua University, Beijing, China SUBSTANDARD HOUSING AND ITS EFFECTS Growth of the Problem Critical Period Health, Economic, and Social Effects APPRAISAL OF QUALITY OF LIVING APHA Appraisal Method Census Data Health, Economic, and Social Factors Planning Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Indices Other Survey Methods Health Principles Basic Health Principles of Housing and Its Environment* Minimum Standards Housing Ordinance HOUSING PROGRAM Approach Components of a Good Housing Program Outline of a Housing Program Solutions to the Problem Selection of Work Areas Enforcement Program Enforcement Procedures HOUSING FORM PARAGRAPHS FOR LETTERS Structural Safety Incomplete Bathroom No Hot Water Leaking Water Closet Floors Not Water Repellent Exterior Paint Needed Rotted and Missing Siding Sagging Wall Loose Plaster Leaking Roof No Gutters or Rain Leaders No Handrails Lead Paint Refuse in Attic Water-Closet Flush Tank Not Operating Correctly Garbage Stored in Paper Box or Bag Dilapidated Garbage Shed Debris in Yard or Vacant Lot Dirty Apartment Overcrowded Sleeping Room No Window in Habitable Room Unlawful Third-Floor Occupancy Unlawful Cellar Occupancy Clogged Sewer Unvented Heater Furnace Flue Defective Rubber-Hose Gas Connection Rat Infestation Roach Infestation Overflowing Sewage Disposal System Improperly Protected Well-Water Supply Major Repairs Minor Repairs Obtain at Least Three Estimates PLUMBING Plumbing Code Backflow Prevention Indirect Waste Piping Plumbing Details Other INDOOR AIR QUALITY Causes and Sources of Indoor Air Pollution Biological Contaminants and Health Effects Other Contaminants Thermal and Moisture Requirements Ventilation Respiratory Illness Contron Venting of Heating Units MOBILE HOME PARKS INSTITUTION SANITATION Definition Institutions as Small Communities Hospitals and Nursing Homes Schools, Colleges, and Universities Correctional Institutions Day-Care Centers REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT GEORGE TCHOBANOGLOUS, Ph. D. Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering University? University of California at Davis Davis, California DEFINITION OF TERMS INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT Source Reduction Recycling and Composting Combustion (Waste-to-Energy) Landfills Implementing Integrated Solid Waste Management SOURCES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND QUANTITIES OF SOLID WASTE Characteristics of Solid Waste Commercial and Household Hazardous Waste Construction and Demolition Debris Special Wastes Collected Separately ON-SITE HANDLING AND STORAGE Low-Rise Residential Areas Low- and Medium-Rise Apartments High-Rise Apartments Commercial and Institution SOLID WASTE COLLECTION Type of Service Collection Frequency Types of Collection Systems Personnel Requirements Health Issues TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT Economic Analysis of Transfer Operations Types of Transfer Stations Vehicles for Uncompacted Wastes Transfer Station Siting Issues WASTE REDUCTION AND MATERIALS RECOVERY Waste Reduction Materials Recovery and Recycling Processing Technologies for the Recovery of Materials Implementation of Materials Recovery Facilities Technical Considerations in the Planning and Design of MRFs COMPOSTING Uses of Compost and Constraints to Its Use Composting Process Composting Technologies Compost Process Design and Operational Considerations Issues in the Implementation of Composting Facilities Health Hazard SANITARY LANDFILL PLANNING, DESIGN, AND OPERATION Sanitary Landfill Planning Sanitary Landfill Methods General Landfill Design Issues Leachate Generation, Control, and Treatment Landfill Gas Generation, Control, and Recovery and Utilization Management of Surface Waters Landfill Mining Landfill Facilities and Equipment for Disposal by Sanitary Landfill Landfill Operation and Supervision Summary of Recommended Operating Practices Site Closure or Conversion INCINERATION Description of Operation of MSW Incinerator Control of the Incineration Process Residue Management Site Selection, Plant Layout, and Building Design Issues in the Implementation of Incineration Facilities HAZARDOUS WASTES Definition of Hazardous Waste Legislation Generation of Hazardous Waste Hazardous Waste Management REFERENCES CHAPTER 4 AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE CONTROL ROBERT JACKO AND TIMOTHY LA BRECHE? Department of Civil Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE CONTROLS Health Effects Economic Effects Effects on Plants Effects on Animals Aesthetic, Climatic, and Related Effects SOURCES AND TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION Man-made Sources Natural Sources SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT Particulate Sampling Ambient Air Gas Sampling Smoke and Soiling Measurement Stack Sampling Measurement of Materials? Degradation ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Meteorology Topography AIR POLLUTION SURVEYS Inventory Air Sampling Basic Studies and Analyses AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS* Federal Standards Clean Air Act of 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments Of 1997 Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) CONTROLS Source Control Emission Control Equipment Particulate Collectors and Separators Gaseous Collectors and Treatment Devices Dilution by Stack Height Planning and Zoning Air Quality Modeling PROGRAM AND ENFORCEMENT General Organization and Staffing Regulation and Administration NOISE CONTROL Definitions and Explanation of Selected Terms and Properties of Sound Effects of Noise?A Health Hazard Sources of Noise Measurement of Noise Methods for Noise Control Control of Industrial Noise Control of Transport Noise Noise Reduction Federal Regulations State and Local Regulations REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY Air Pollution Noise Control 5 CHAPTER SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Kurt Bauer Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission INTRODUCTION Importance of Maps BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS Foundational Elements for Creation of Maps Map Projections Tangent Plane Projection Lambert Projection Mercator Projection Transverse Mercator Projection Other Projections The State Plane Coordinate System Survey Control Networks The National Geodetic Survey Control First published in 1958, Salvato's Environmental Engineering has long been the definitive reference for generations of sanitation and environmental engineers. Approaching its 50th year of continual publication in a rapidly changing field, the Sixth Edition has been fully reworked and reorganized into three separate, succinct volumes to adapt to amore complex and scientifically demanding field with dozens of specializations. Updated and reviewed by leading experts in the field, this revised edition offers new coverage of industrial solid wastes utilization and disposal, the use of surveying in environmental engineering and land use planning, and environmental assessment. Stressing the practicality and appropriateness of treatment, the Sixth Edition provides realistic solutions for the practicing public health official or environmental engineer. This volume, __Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry, Sixth Edition__, covers: * Municipal and industrial waste and pollution including landfills and facility, office and residential sanitation, and air quality * The environmental health of residential and institutional spaces such as homes and offices, including indoor air quality, sanitation, and the impact of substandard construction techniques * Land use planning and forensics techniques for investigating repurposed industrial and agricultural land * Air pollution and noise control * Surveying and mapping for environmental engineering Content: Chapter 1 Industrial Solid Wastes Utilization and Disposal (pages 1–81): Salah M. El?HaggarChapter 2 Residential and Institutional Environment (pages 83–175): Xudong YangChapter 3 Solid Waste Management (pages 177–308): George TchobanoglousChapter 4 Air Pollution and Noise Control (pages 309–393): Robert Jacko and Timothy La BrecheChapter 5 Surveying and Mapping for Environmental Engineering (pages 395–428): Kurt W. BauerChapter 6 Planning and Environmental Assessment (pages 429–524): Kurt W. Bauer

First published in 1958, Salvato's Environmental Engineering has long been the definitive reference for generations of sanitation and environmental engineers. Approaching its 50th year of continual publication in a rapidly changing field, the Sixth Edition has been fully reworked and reorganized into three separate, succinct volumes to adapt to amore complex and scientifically demanding field with dozens of specializations.

Updated and reviewed by leading experts in the field, this revised edition offers new coverage of industrial solid wastes utilization and disposal, the use of surveying in environmental engineering and land use planning, and environmental assessment. Stressing the practicality and appropriateness of treatment, the Sixth Edition provides realistic solutions for the practicing public health official or environmental engineer.

This volume, Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry, Sixth Edition, covers:

• Municipal and industrial waste and pollution including landfills and facility, office and residential sanitation, and air quality

• The environmental health of residential and institutional spaces such as homes and offices, including indoor air quality, sanitation, and the impact of substandard construction techniques

• Land use planning and forensics techniques for investigating repurposed industrial and agricultural land

• Air pollution and noise control

• Surveying and mapping for environmental engineering