Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems

Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems provides a comprehensive, in-depth understanding on the technologies used to create quality plant-based foods. This title helps researchers and food processors gain an understanding of the diverse aspects of plant-based foods, with a focus to meet the current consumers' demand of alternatives to animal products. This is a one-stop source that provides maximum information related to plant-based foods to food science researchers, food engineers and food processing/manufacturers. This book will enhance their understanding of plant-based protein sources, their application, product manufacturing, and bioavailability. In recent years, the emphasis on minimizing environmental footprints (climate change, greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity) and human health issues related to animal source food intakes has shifted the attention of researchers, dietitians and health professionals from animal-based diets to diets rich in plant-based foods (legumes, nuts, seeds). Front Cover Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems Copyright Contents List of contributors Preface 1 - Plant-based food as a sustainable source of food for the future 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Plant-based foods and current market trends 1.3 Plant-based foods are sustainable sources of foods for the future 1.4 Comparison of key nutrients from plant- and animal-based foods 1.5 Health benefits of plant-based foods over animal-based foods 1.6 Effect of plant-based food production on the environment 1.7 Summary and future direction References 2 - General health benefits and sensory perception of plant-based foods 2.1 Introduction 2.2 General consumer expectations, sensory perception, and attitude toward plant-based foods 2.3 General health and nutrition of plant-based foods and ingredients 2.3.1 Carbohydrates fraction in plant-based foods 2.3.2 Protein content of plant-based foods 2.3.3 Lipids 2.3.4 Phytonutrients and phytochemicals present in plant-based foods 2.3.5 Fiber present in plant-based foods 2.3.6 Vitamins, minerals, and trace elements 2.4 Antinutritional aspect of plant-based foods 2.4.1 Tannins 2.4.2 Lectins 2.4.3 Oxalates 2.4.4 Saponins 2.4.5 Phytates 2.4.6 Exorphins 2.4.7 Trypsin inhibitors 2.4.8 Alpha-amylase inhibitors 2.4.9 Protease inhibitors 2.5 The impact of antinutrients on human health 2.6 Summary References I - Plant-based proteins 3 - Sustainable plant-based protein sources and their extraction 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Preprocessing steps and milling 3.2.1 The structure, microstructure, and composition of plant materials used for protein extraction 3.2.2 Preprocessing steps 3.2.3 Milling 3.3 Dry protein extraction 3.4 Wet protein extraction 3.4.1 Conventional wet protein extraction techniques 3.4.2 Novel wet protein extraction techniques 3.4.2.1 Reverse micelles 3.4.2.2 Subcritical water extraction 3.4.2.3 Aqueous two-phase extraction systems 3.4.3 Cell disruption techniques 3.5 Methods to improve the functionality of protein isolates 3.6 Novel hybrid dry and wet extraction methods 3.7 Summary and future outlook References 4 - Reducing allergenicity in plant-based proteins 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Sources of allergen and their effect 4.2.1 Tree nuts 4.2.2 Peanuts 4.2.3 Wheat 4.2.4 Soybeans 4.3 Techniques employed to reduce/remove allergenicity of plant proteins 4.3.1 Thermal techniques 4.3.1.1 Moist heat 4.3.1.2 Boiling and autoclaving 4.3.1.3 Cooking 4.3.1.4 Frying 4.3.2 Dry heat 4.3.3 Novel thermal techniques 4.3.4 Nonthermal technologies 4.3.4.1 Fermentation 4.3.4.2 Ultrasonication 4.3.4.3 High-pressure processing 4.3.4.4 Pulsed electric field 4.3.4.5 Cold plasma processing 4.3.4.6 Radiation 4.4 Concluding remarks References 5 - Functionality of plant-based proteins 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Functionality of plant-based proteins 5.2.1 Organoleptic and kinesthetic properties 5.2.1.1 Color 5.2.1.2 Flavor 5.2.1.3 Texture 5.2.2 Hydration properties 5.2.2.1 Wettability and water absorption capacity 5.2.2.2 Dispersibility and solubilization 5.2.2.3 Viscosity and gelation 5.2.3 Surface interactions 5.2.3.1 Binding properties 5.2.3.2 Emulsifying properties 5.2.3.3 Foaming properties 5.2.4 Rheological and textural functionalities 5.2.4.1 Rheological functionalities of liquid/semi-solid system 5.2.4.2 Textural functionalities of solid system 5.2.4.3 Rheology at the interface 5.3 Comparison between plant proteins and animal proteins 5.3.1 Behavior in emulsions, foams, and gels 5.3.2 Mixed plant-/animal-based protein systems 5.4 Bioaccessibility of plant-based proteins 5.5 Functional limitations of plant-based proteins in food applications 5.6 Summary and future direction Acknowledgments References II - Plant-based dairy alternatives 6 - Plant-based beverages 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Processing methods employed to manufacture plant-based beverages 6.2.1 Extraction of natural oil bodies from plant material 6.2.2 Preparation of O/W emulsions 6.2.2.1 Ingredients 6.2.2.1.1 Vegetable oil 6.2.2.1.2 Aqueous phase 6.2.2.1.3 Plant proteins and/or other emulsifiers 6.2.2.1.4 Other additives 6.2.2.2 Processing operations 6.3 Plant-based beverages currently available 6.3.1 Legume-based beverages 6.3.1.1 Soy-based beverages 6.3.1.2 Peanut-based beverages 6.3.1.3 Pea-based beverages 6.3.2 Nut-based beverages 6.3.2.1 Almond-based beverages 6.3.2.2 Coconut-based beverages 6.3.3 Cereal-based beverages 6.3.3.1 Oat-based beverages 6.3.3.2 Rice-based beverages 6.3.4 Pseudocereal-based beverages 6.3.4.1 Quinoa-based beverages 6.3.5 Seed-based beverages 6.3.5.1 Sesame-based beverages 6.3.5.2 Hemp-based beverages 6.4 Physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory 6.4.1 Physicochemical properties 6.4.2 Nutritional value and bioactive components 6.4.3 Sensory attributes 6.4.4 Bioavailability of plant-based beverages 6.4.4.1 Effects of polyphenols plant proteins and other micro-nutrients 6.4.4.2 Bioavailability of genistein 6.5 Advantages and limitations 6.6 Summary and future directions References Further reading 7 - Plant-based gels 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classification of food gels based on plant ingredients 7.2.1 Polysaccharide gels 7.2.2 Protein gels 7.2.3 Binary gels 7.3 Fabrication techniques of plant-based food gels 7.3.1 Fabrication of hydrogels 7.3.2 Fabrication of aerogels 7.3.3 Fabrication of oleogels 7.3.4 Fabrication of emulsion gels 7.3.5 Fabrication of bigels 7.4 Functions of plant-based gels in food industry 7.4.1 Water absorption, water retention, and moisture absorption 7.4.2 Sustained release 7.4.3 Emulsion stabilization 7.5 Physico-chemical and sensory of plant-based gels 7.6 Bioavailable components from plant-based gels 7.7 Recent trends and future for improving the quality-based gels References Further reading 8 - Plant-based butter like spreads 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Type of plant-based butter-like spreads 8.2.1 Nut-based butter 8.2.2 Beans and legumes-based butter 8.2.3 Seed-based butter 8.2.4 Fruits and vegetables-based butter 8.3 Factors affecting the textural properties of plant-based butter 8.3.1 Effect of processing 8.3.1.1 Particle size 8.3.1.2 Moisture content 8.3.2 Effect of ingredients 8.3.2.1 Oil content 8.3.2.2 Stabilizer and emulsifier 8.3.2.3 Fat replacer 8.4 Physical and sensory characteristics of the plant-based butter-like spreads 8.4.1 Physical characteristics 8.4.2 Sensory characteristics 8.4.3 Flavor characteristics 8.5 Advantages and limitations of plant-based spreads 8.6 Summary and future direction References III - Plant-based meat alternatives 9 - Plant-based meat analogue 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Structuring techniques of plant-based meat 9.2.1 Extrusion 9.2.2 Mechanical elongation method 9.2.3 Freeze structuring 9.2.4 Cell culture 9.2.5 Electrospinning 9.2.6 3D printing 9.3 Plant-based meat ingredients 9.3.1 Protein source 9.3.1.1 Oil seed proteins 9.3.1.2 Legume proteins 9.3.1.3 Wheat protein 9.3.1.4 Microalgae protein 9.3.2 Binding agents 9.3.3 Miscellaneous plant-based ingredients 9.3.3.1 Agricultural wastes 9.3.3.2 Color and flavor 9.4 Processing factors 9.4.1 Temperature 9.4.2 Composite of proteins 9.4.3 pH 9.5 Summary and future outlook Acknowledgment References 10 - Plant-based imitated fish 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Currently available plant-based alternatives to fish 10.3 Ingredients used for the manufacture of plant-based fish 10.3.1 Water 10.3.2 Protein 10.3.3 Fats and oils 10.3.4 Additives 10.4 Processing and manufacture 10.5 Physicochemical and sensory properties 10.6 Nutritional composition 10.7 Value for money 10.8 Gourmet plant-based fish for the food service industry 10.9 Conclusion and future recommendations 10.10 Abbreviations References 11 - Plant-based imitated seafood 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Raw ingredients 11.2.1 Protein sources 11.2.2 Other nonprotein sources 11.2.3 Application of plant ingredients as extenders in seafood products 11.3 Processing technologies in the manufacture of imitation seafood 11.4 Postprocessing of imitation seafood: packaging, shelf life, and safety 11.5 Nutritional profile of plant-based imitation seafood 11.5.1 Fish-less imitation fillets 11.5.2 Processed imitation tuna 11.5.3 Other imitation seafood products 11.6 Environmental impact from the rise of imitation seafood 11.7 Market demand, consumer attitudes, and regulatory challenges for imitation seafood products 11.8 Future outlooks and conclusion References IV - Fermented plant-based beverages and foods 12 - Fermented plant-based beverage: kombucha 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Kombucha and its properties 12.3 Microbiology of kombucha 12.3.1 Yeast 12.3.2 Acetic acid bacteria 12.3.3 Lactic acid bacteria 12.4 Kombucha processing 12.4.1 Preparation of fermentation medium 12.4.2 Inoculation 12.4.3 Fermentation 12.4.4 Composition of kombucha 12.5 Functionality of kombucha 12.5.1 Antioxidant activity 12.5.2 Antibacterial activity 12.5.3 Antidiabetes activity 12.5.3.1 Fasting plasma glucose level reduction 12.5.3.2 Pancreas immunohistochemistry study 12.5.4 Potential of kombucha as an immunomodulator 12.6 Summary and future direction References Further reading 13 - Fermented plant-based foods (e.g., tofu, sauerkraut, sourdough) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Plant-based fermented foods currently available 13.2.1 Tofu 13.2.1.1 Firm tofu 13.2.1.2 Silken tofu/soft tofu 13.2.1.3 Dried tofu 13.2.1.4 Sufu (fermented tofu) 13.2.2 Sauerkraut 13.2.3 Sourdough 13.3 Processing methods employed to manufacture the fermented foods 13.3.1 Fermentation process: sauerkraut 13.3.2 Fermentation process: tofu 13.3.3 Fermentation process: sourdough 13.4 Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of plant-based fermented foods 13.4.1 Tofu 13.4.2 Sauerkraut 13.4.3 Sourdough 13.5 Bioavailable components from plant-based fermented foods 13.5.1 Tofu 13.5.2 Sauerkraut 13.5.3 Sour dough 13.6 Applications associated with the plant-based fermented foods 13.6.1 Tofu 13.6.2 Sauerkraut 13.6.3 Sourdough 13.7 Summary and future perspectives References V - Plant-based functional components 14 - Polyphenols, phytosterols, aromatics, and essential oils 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Functional components and their health benefits 14.3 Methods employed to extract the functional components 14.3.1 Conventional techniques of extraction and process parameters 14.3.2 Recent developments in greener extraction technology 14.3.2.1 Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction 14.3.2.2 Ionic liquid–assisted extraction 14.3.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction 14.3.2.4 Three phase partitioning 14.3.2.5 Cell lysis techniques 14.3.3 Challenges in extraction of functional components 14.4 Enhancement of bioavailability of the extracted functional components 14.4.1 Lipid-based delivery systems 14.4.1.1 Emulsions 14.4.1.2 Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems 14.4.1.3 Liposomes 14.4.1.4 Lipid nanocarriers-solid-lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers 14.4.2 Biopolymer-based delivery systems 14.4.2.1 Emulsions 14.4.2.2 Conventional encapsulates 14.4.2.3 Nanoparticles 14.4.2.4 Coacervates 14.4.3 Gelled systems 14.4.4 Hydrogels 14.4.4.1 Emulgels 14.4.4.2 Organogels 14.4.4.3 Bigels 14.4.5 Miscellaneous carriers 14.4.5.1 Cocrystallization 14.4.5.2 Inclusion complexation 14.4.5.3 Yeast encapsulation 14.5 Summary and future direction References 15 - Food processing interventions to improve the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of plant food nutrients 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Effects of food processing on bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds 15.2.1 Blending 15.2.1.1 Phenolic compounds 15.2.1.2 Carotenoids 15.2.1.3 Minerals 15.2.1.4 Vitamins 15.2.2 Juicing 15.2.2.1 Phenolic compounds 15.2.2.2 Carotenoids 15.2.2.3 Minerals 15.2.2.4 Vitamins 15.2.3 Extrusion 15.2.3.1 Phenolic compounds 15.2.3.2 Carotenoids 15.2.3.3 Minerals 15.2.3.4 Vitamins 15.3 Effects of food preservation on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds 15.3.1 Freezing 15.3.1.1 Phenolic compounds 15.3.1.2 Carotenoids 15.3.1.3 Minerals and vitamins 15.3.2 Drying 15.3.2.1 Phenolic compounds 15.3.2.2 Carotenoids 15.3.2.3 Minerals 15.3.2.4 Vitamins 15.3.3 Thermal processing 15.3.3.1 Phenolic compounds 15.3.3.2 Carotenoids 15.3.3.3 Minerals 15.3.3.4 Vitamins 15.3.4 Nonthermal processing 15.3.4.1 Phenolic compounds 15.3.4.2 Carotenoids 15.3.4.3 Minerals 15.3.4.4 Vitamins 15.4 Summary and future perspectives Acknowledgments References VI - Plant-based food - future outlook 16 - 3D printing of plant-based foods 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Extrusion-based 3D printing 16.2.1 3D printing stages 16.2.2 Extruding forces and controllable printing variables 16.2.3 Food ink quality and assessment of the 3D-printed construct 16.3 Essential plant-based constituents and their feasibility for 3D printing 16.3.1 Plant proteins 16.3.2 Carbohydrates 16.4 Infill percentage and pattern: texture design and encapsulation of micronutrients 16.4.1 Texture design 16.4.2 Encapsulation of micronutrients and probiotics 16.5 4D printing 16.6 Summary and future directions References 17 - Plant-based foods—future outlook 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Clean-label issues in plant-based foods 17.3 3D printed plant-based foods 17.4 3D printing technologies for plant-based foods 17.5 Extrusion-based printing 17.6 Selective sintering-based printing 17.7 Binder jetting 17.8 Bioprinting 17.9 Ingredients for plant-based food inks 17.10 Starch and plant origin polysaccharides 17.11 Vegetable and fruit preparations 17.12 Plant proteins 17.13 Living plant cells 17.14 Microalgal biomass 17.15 Consumers attitude toward 3D plant-based food 17.16 Targeting potential markets and consumers (children, adults, and elderly) 17.17 3D food printing for adults and elderly nutrition plan customization 17.18 Dietary concepts for children 17.19 Space mission food 17.20 Summary and future directions References Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Back Cover