Engineering Physics (All India)

This book on Engineering Physics is designed to cater to the needs of first year undergraduate engineering students. Written in a lucid style, this book assimilates the best practices of conceptual pedagogy, dealing at length with various topics such as crystallography, principles of quantum mechanics, free electron theory of metals, dielectric and magnetic properties, semiconductors, nanotechnology, etc. Cover......Page 1 Brief Contents......Page 4 Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 16 1.1 Different types of bonding in solids......Page 18 1.2 Cohesive energy and estimation of cohesiveenergy of ionic solids......Page 21 1.3. Estimation of cohesive energy of NaClmolecule in a solid......Page 25 1.4 Madelung constant......Page 26 Formulae......Page 27 Solved Problems......Page 28 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 31 Review Questions......Page 33 2.1 Introduction......Page 36 2.2 Space lattice (or) crystal lattice......Page 37 2.4 Unit cell and lattice parameters......Page 38 2.5 Crystal systems and Bravais lattices......Page 39 2.6 Structure and packing fractions of simple cubic [SC] structure......Page 44 2.7 Structure and packing fractions of body-centred cubic structure [BCC]......Page 45 2.8 Structure and packing fractions of face-centred cubic [FCC] structure......Page 46 2.9 Diamond cubic structure......Page 47 2.10 NaCl crystal structure......Page 48 2.12 Zinc sulphide [ZnS] structure......Page 49 2.13 Stacking sequence in metallic crystals......Page 50 2.14 Calculation of lattice constant......Page 51 Solved Problems......Page 52 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 54 Review Questions......Page 57 3.1 Crystal planes, directions and Miller indices......Page 60 3.2 Distance of separation between successive hkl planes......Page 63 3.3 Imperfections in crystals......Page 66 3.4 Energy for the formation of a vacancy and number of vacancies — at equilibrium concentration......Page 70 3.5 Diffraction of X-rays by crystal planesand Bragg’s law......Page 74 3.6 Powder method......Page 76 3.7 Laue method......Page 77 Formulae......Page 78 Solved Problems......Page 79 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 86 Review Questions......Page 91 4.3 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution......Page 94 4.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution......Page 96 4.5 Bose–Einstein distribution......Page 98 4.7 Photon gas......Page 100 4.9 Density of electron states......Page 101 4.10 Black body radiation......Page 104 4.11 Waves and particles—de Broglie hypothesis—Matter waves......Page 105 4.12 Relativistic correction......Page 108 4.13 Planck’s quantum theory of blackbody radiation......Page 111 4.14 Experimental study of matter waves......Page 112 4.14 Schrödinger’s time-independentwave equation......Page 119 4.15 Heisenberg uncertainty principle......Page 122 4.16 Physical significance of the wave function......Page 124 4.17 Particle in a potential box......Page 125 Formulae......Page 134 Solved Problems......Page 135 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 141 Review Questions......Page 146 5.1 Introduction......Page 150 5.2 Classical free electron theory of metals......Page 151 5.3 Relaxation time, mean free path, mean collisiontime and drift velocity......Page 154 5.4 Fermi-Dirac distribution......Page 156 5.5 Quantum free electron theoryof electrical conduction......Page 158 5.6 Sources of electrical resistance......Page 160 5.7 Band theory of solids......Page 161 5.8 Bloch theorem......Page 169 5.10 Velocity and effective mass of an electron......Page 171 5.11 Distinction between metals, semiconductorsand insulators......Page 174 Solved Problems......Page 177 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 185 Answers......Page 188 Review Questions......Page 189 6.2 Dielectric constant......Page 192 6.3 Internal or local field......Page 193 6.4 Clausius–Mosotti relation......Page 195 6.5 Orientational, ionic and electronic polarizations......Page 198 6.6 Frequency dependence of polarizability: (Dielectrics in alternating fields)......Page 203 6.7 Piezoelectricity......Page 208 6.8 Ferroelectricity......Page 209 6.9 Frequency dependence of dielectric constant......Page 211 6.10 Important requirements of insulators......Page 213 Formulae......Page 214 Solved Problems......Page 215 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 220 Review Questions......Page 225 7.1 Magnetic permeability......Page 228 7.3 Origin of magnetic moment—Bohr magneton—electron spin......Page 229 7.4 Classification of magnetic materials......Page 232 7.5 Classical theory of diamagnetism[Langevin theory]......Page 234 7.6 Theory of paramagnetism......Page 236 7.7 Domain theory of ferromagnetism......Page 239 7.8 Hysteresis curve......Page 244 7.9 Anti-ferromagnetic substances......Page 245 7.11 Soft and hard magnetic materials......Page 247 7.12 Applications of ferrites......Page 249 Solved Problems......Page 250 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 253 Answers......Page 257 Review Questions......Page 258 8.2 Intrinsic semiconductors—carrier concentration......Page 262 8.3 Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor......Page 272 8.4 Extrinsic semiconductors......Page 276 8.5 Carrier concentration in extrinsic semiconductors......Page 279 8.6 Minority carrier life time......Page 282 8.7 Drift and diffusion currents......Page 284 8.8 Einstein’s relations......Page 287 8.9 Continuity equation......Page 288 8.10 Hall effect......Page 292 8.11 Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors......Page 294 8.12 Formation of p-n junction......Page 296 8.13 Energy band diagram of p-n diode......Page 299 8.14 Diode equation......Page 300 8.15 p-n junction biasing......Page 301 8.16 V–I characteristics of p-n diode......Page 303 8.17 p-n diode rectifier......Page 305 8.18 Light emitting diode [LED]......Page 310 8.19 Liquid crystal display (LCD)......Page 313 8.20 Photodiodes......Page 315 Formulae......Page 318 Solved Problems......Page 320 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 327 Answers......Page 333 Review Questions......Page 334 9.1 Introduction......Page 338 9.2 General features of superconductors......Page 340 9.3 Type-I and Type-II superconductors......Page 345 9.4 Penetration depth......Page 346 9.5 Flux quantization......Page 348 9.6 Quantum tunnelling......Page 349 9.7 Josephson’s effect......Page 351 9.8 BCS theory......Page 353 9.9.1 Magnetic applications......Page 356 9.9.2 Electrical applications......Page 357 9.9.5 Maglev vehicles......Page 358 9.9.6 Medical applications......Page 359 Solved Problems......Page 360 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 362 Review Questions......Page 366 10.2 Characteristics of laser radiation......Page 368 10.3 Spontaneous and stimulated emission......Page 369 10.4 Einstein’s coefficients......Page 371 10.5 Population inversion......Page 373 10.6 Helium–Neon gas [He–Ne] laser......Page 375 10.7 Ruby laser......Page 377 10.8 Semiconductor lasers......Page 379 10.9 Carbon dioxide laser......Page 382 10.10 Applications of lasers......Page 385 Solved Problems......Page 387 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 388 Review Questions......Page 391 11.2 Principle of optical fibre, acceptance angle and acceptance cone......Page 394 11.3 Numerical aperture (NA)......Page 396 11.4 Step index fibres and graded index fibres—transmission of signals in them......Page 398 11.5 Differences between step index fibresand graded index fibres......Page 401 11.6 Differences between single mode fibres and multimode fibres......Page 402 11.7 Attenuation in optical fibres......Page 403 11.8 Optical fibres in communication......Page 405 11.9 Advantages of optical fibresin communication......Page 406 11.10 Fibre optic sensing applications......Page 407 Formulae......Page 410 Solved Problems......Page 411 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 415 Answers......Page 417 Review Questions......Page 418 12.3 Recording of image on a holographic plate......Page 420 12.4 Reconstruction of image from a hologram......Page 421 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 422 Review Questions......Page 423 13.2 Reverberation and time of reverberation......Page 424 13.4 Sabine’s reverberation theoryfor reverberation time......Page 425 13.5 Absorption coefficient of soundand its measurement......Page 430 13.7 Factors affecting architectural acoustics and their remedies......Page 431 13.9 Methods of quieting......Page 434 13.10 Quieting for specific observers......Page 435 13.11 Muffler (or silencer)......Page 436 Formulae......Page 437 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 438 Review Questions......Page 440 14.1 Basic principle of nanoscience and nanotechnology......Page 442 14.2 Physical properties......Page 445 14.3 Chemical properties......Page 447 14.4 Fabrication......Page 448 14.5 Production of nanoparticle......Page 451 14.6 Carbon nanotubes......Page 452 14.7 Applications of nanotechnology......Page 455 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 456 Review Questions......Page 461 15.2 Conditions for sustained interference......Page 462 15.3 Young’s double slit experiment......Page 463 15.4 Coherence......Page 468 15.5 Newton’s rings......Page 469 15.6 Introduction......Page 473 15.8 Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit......Page 474 15.9 Fraunhofer diffraction at double slit......Page 478 15.10 Fraunhofer diffraction at a circular aperture......Page 481 15.11 Plane diffraction grating [Diffraction at n slits]......Page 482 15.12 Grating spectrum......Page 486 15.13 Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving power......Page 488 15.14 Resolving power of a plane transmission grating......Page 489 15.16 General concept of polarization......Page 491 15.17 Representation of polarized and unpolarized light......Page 493 15.19 Plane, circularly and elliptically polarized light......Page 494 15.20 Polarization by reflection......Page 496 15.22 Double refraction......Page 498 15.24 Nicol prism......Page 500 15.25 Polaroid......Page 502 15.26 Quarter-wave plate......Page 503 15.27 Half-wave plate......Page 504 15.28 Theory of circular and elliptically polarized light......Page 505 Formulae......Page 507 Solved Problems......Page 509 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 518 Review Questions......Page 523 16.2 Principle of ultrasonic testing......Page 526 16.3 Ultrasonic flaw detector......Page 527 16.4 Ultrasonic transducer......Page 528 16.5 Couplant......Page 531 16.6 Inspection methods—Pulse echo testing technique......Page 532 16.7 Different types of scans......Page 533 16.8 Inspection standards [Reference standards or calibration blocks]......Page 536 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 538 Review Questions......Page 540 17.1 Nuclear liquid drop model......Page 542 17.2 Semi-empirical mass formula......Page 543 17.3 Shell model......Page 544 17.4 Linear particle accelerator......Page 545 17.5 Cyclotron......Page 547 17.6 The betatron......Page 550 17.7 Synchrocyclotron or frequency-modulated cyclotron......Page 552 17.8 Synchrotron......Page 554 17.9 Geiger–Muller counter (G–M counter)......Page 557 17.10 Motion of charged particlesin electric and magnetic fields......Page 559 17.11 Bainbridge mass spectrograph......Page 564 17.12 Aston mass spectrograph......Page 566 Formulae......Page 570 Solved Problems......Page 571 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 572 Answers......Page 573 Review Questions......Page 574 18.2 Electromagnetic wave equation......Page 576 18.3 Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves......Page 578 18.4 Relation between E and H of planeelectro-magnetic waves in free space......Page 580 18.5 Scalar and vector magnetic potentials......Page 581 18.6 Poynting theorem......Page 584 18.7 Electromagnetic wave propagation in free space......Page 585 18.8 Wave propagation in a conducting medium......Page 587 18.9 Propagation of electromagnetic waves in ionized gaseous medium [plasma medium]......Page 594 Formulae......Page 597 Solved Problems......Page 598 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 602 Review Questions......Page 604 19.2 Frame of reference......Page 606 19.3 Galilean transformations......Page 607 19.5.1 Experimental set-up......Page 609 19.5.2 Explanations for negative result......Page 612 19.7 Lorentz transformation of space and time......Page 613 19.8 Length contraction......Page 616 19.9 Time dilation......Page 617 19.11 Addition of velocities......Page 618 19.12 Variation of mass with velocity......Page 620 19.13 Mass–energy equivalence......Page 624 Formulae......Page 626 Solved problems......Page 627 Multiple-choice Questions......Page 631 Review Questions......Page 633 Index......Page 634