Energy Storage Technologies and Applications

This book provides a broad look at all different energy storage technologies, from the past and into the future. It takes a hard look at the advantages and disadvantages of various technologies, but also the different applications of energy storage to determine the attributes that are most important for the technology one would choose for them. The book guides you through the hidden costs and true advantages of today's energy storage technologies, and helps you understand energy storage technologies' specifications and claims to uncover which are important to their applications. You will see how an energy storage technology's attributes affect the total system's performance and value and be equipped to evaluate the true costs of energy storage, with respect to up-front capital costs, ongoing operating costs, and total carbon footprint. You will also find helpful lessons learned from industry experts as they strove to pave new roads in the development of energy storage technologies and their markets. This is an excellent resource for project developers and anyone who needs a broad understanding of what matters in energy storage. Artech House Power Engineering Library Energy Storage Technologies and Applications 2 Contents 6 Foreword 10 Preface 12 Acknowledgments 14 Chapter 1 A Brief History of Storing Energy Using Electricity 16 1.1 Bottled Electricity: First Attempts to Capture Electrical Energy 16 1.2 Primary Battery Developments 18 1.3 Early Battery Applications 18 1.4 Secondary Rechargeable Batteries 19 1.5 Electrified Transportation 19 1.6 Storage in Electricity Distribution 20 1.7 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 25 1.8 Growth of Hydro-Based Storage and Generation 27 1.9 Compressed-Air Energy Storage 29 1.10 Return of Battery-Based Energy Storage 30 1.10.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries 33 1.11 Going Forward 36 References 37 Additional References and Useful Links 38 Chapter 2 Applications of Energy Storage on the Grid 40 2.1 Why Does the Grid Need Energy Storage? 40 2.1.1 Inertial Support 41 2.1.2 Frequency Services 46 2.1.3 Renewable Energy Integration 51 2.1.4 Energy Shifting 55 2.1.5 Transmission and Distribution 57 2.1.6 Demand Charge Management 58 2.1.7 Power Quality 60 2.1.8 Resiliency 62 2.2 How Much Energy Storage is Necessary? 63 References 67 Appendix 2A 68 AC versus DC 68 Chapter 3 Mechanical Energy Storage 70 3.1 Kinetic Energy Storage 70 3.1.1 The Fundamentals 71 3.1.2 Beacon Power 75 3.1.3 Flywheels for Frequency Regulation 76 3.1.4 Flywheel Summary 79 3.2 Potential Energy Storage 80 3.2.1 Gravitricity’s Weights on a Cable 82 3.2.2 Gravity Power’s Floating Piston 85 3.2.3 Energy Vault’s Stack of Blocks 87 3.2.4 Summary of Potential Energy Storage Systems 89 3.3 Mechanical Energy Storage Summary 89 Additional References and Useful Links 91 Chapter 4 Hydroelectric Energy Storage 92 4.1 The Basics 92 4.2 Massive Scale 94 4.3 Environmental Impact 94 4.4 The Muscle in the Works 95 4.4.1 How Much Power Can a Turbine Produce? 99 4.4.2 Height and Flow 100 4.5 Examples of Pumped Hydro Storage 100 4.6 PHS Applications 103 4.6.1 Bulk Energy Storage 103 4.6.2 Seasonal Energy Storage 104 4.6.3 Short-Term Energy Storage and Grid Services 104 4.7 Summary of Pumped Hydro Storage 112 References 114 Appendix 4A 116 Chapter 5 Thermodynamic Energy Storage 120 5.1 CAES 120 5.1.1 Compressing Air 120 5.1.2 Decompressing Air 125 5.1.3 Examples of CAES Plants 128 5.1.4 Siting CAES 130 5.1.6 Controlling CAES 136 5.1.7 Summary of Compressed Air Energy Storage 137 5.2 Thermal Energy Storage 138 5.2.1 Sensible Thermal Energy 140 5.2.2 Latent Heat Storage 147 5.3 Thermochemical Storage 151 5.4 Summary of Thermal Energy Storage 152 References 154 Appendix 5A 156 Chapter 6 Electrochemical Energy Storage 158 6.1 Six Critical Components of a Battery Cell 159 6.2 Battery Energy Storage Architecture 162 6.3 Battery Chemistries 166 6.3.1 Lead-Acid 167 6.3.2 Nickel-Cadmium 180 6.3.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride 187 6.3.4 Lithium-Ion 190 6.3.5 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries 214 6.3.6 Flow Batteries 219 6.3.7 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery 219 6.3.8 Zinc-Bromine 225 6.3.9 All Iron Flow Battery 229 6.3.10 Zinc Batteries 232 6.3.11 Zinc Manganese Dioxide 232 6.3.12 Sodium-Ion Batteries 233 6.3.13 Liquid Metal Batteries 236 6.3.14 Nickel-Iron 240 6.3.15 Electrochemical Supercapacitors 245 6.4 Summary of Electrochemical Energy Storage 249 6.5 Summary of Other Chemistries 251 References 253 Chapter 7 The Value of Energy Storage 256 7.1 Levelized Cost of Energy 257 7.2 Levelized Cost of Storage 257 7.3 Levelized Cost of Using Storage 258 7.3.1 Up-Front Capex 259 7.3.2 Operating Costs 272 7.3.3 Summary of Costs 276 7.3.4 Delivered Energy Basis 277 7.3.5 Simple LCUS Exercises 277 7.3.6 Applications of Energy Storage that Make Cents 281 7.3.7 Sum of the Parts 283 7.4 Concluding Remarks 287 References 288 List of Acronyms, Constants, and Terms 290 About the Author 300 Index 302 Energy,storage;,Power,engineering;,Artech,House;,978-1-63081-908-8 Energy storage,Power engineering,Artech House,978-1-63081-908-8