Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 1

"The Arab contribution is fundamental to the history of science, mathematics and technology, but until now no single publication has offered an up-to-date synthesis of knowledge in this area. In three fully-illustrated volumes the Encyclopedia of the History of Arab Science documents the history and philosophy of Arab science from the earliest times to the present day. Thirty-one chapters, written by an international team of specialists, cover astronomy, mathematics, music, engineering, nautical science, scientific institutions and many other areas. The Encyclopedia is divided into three volumes: 1. Astronomy--Theoretical and applied 2. Mathematics and the Physical Sciences 3. Technology, Alchemy, and the Life Sciences. Extensively illustrated with figures, tables, and plates, each chapter is written by an internationally respected expert, guaranteeing accuracy and quality. Each volume contains an extensive bibliography of sources and suggestions for further reading, and the set is fully indexed. This set will interest mathematicians, engineers and scientists, as well as students of history, the history of science, and Middle Eastern studies."--Publisher's information. Book Cover......Page 1 Half-Title......Page 2 Title......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Contents......Page 5 Preface......Page 8 1 General survey of Arabic astronomy......Page 14 Greek sources......Page 16 Indian and Persian sources......Page 20 OBSERVATIONS AND OBSERVATORIES......Page 21 PROBLEMS OF PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY......Page 28 GREAT PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF ARABIC ASTRONOMY......Page 30 NOTES......Page 31 2 Eastern Arabic astronomy between the eighth and the eleventh centuries......Page 34 ARABIC ASTRONOMY IN THE EAST DURING THE NINTH CENTURY......Page 37 The dissemination of Ptolemy’s astronomy......Page 38 The ‘Verified table’......Page 39 The ‘Book on the solar year’20......Page 40 The work of Habash al-Hasib......Page 45 The mathematization of astronomical reasoning......Page 48 Theoretical study of the motion of a heavenly body on an eccentric30......Page 49 The choice of time intervals for determining the motions of the moon32......Page 51 The visibility of the crescent......Page 55 First stage: relation between α1 and α2......Page 57 Third stage: intervention of the distance earth-moon (as a function of a)......Page 58 Al-Battani......Page 60 Abu Ja‛far al-Khazin, ‛Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi and Ibn Yunus......Page 63 Al-Biruni......Page 65 General principles......Page 67 Conclusion......Page 68 NOTES......Page 69 3 Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD......Page 72 THE CONTROVERSIAL PROBLEMS......Page 73 The motion of the sun......Page 75 The motion of the moon......Page 76 The motion of the upper planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars) and Venus......Page 78 The motion of Mercury......Page 79 The latitude of the moon......Page 81 Latitude of the upper planets......Page 82 Latitude of the lower planets......Page 84 Apparent size of the sun......Page 88 The inclination of the ecliptic......Page 89 The prosneusis point......Page 90 The equant problem......Page 91 Conclusion......Page 93 Doubts concerning the Planetary Hypotheses......Page 94 Contents of al-Istidrak ‛ala Batlamyus......Page 97 The Andalusian school......Page 98 The Eastern School......Page 100 Ibn al-Shatir’s solar model......Page 102 ‛Urdi’s lunar model......Page 105 Tusi’s lunar model......Page 107 The lunar model of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1311)......Page 110 The lunar model of Ibn al-Shatir24......Page 114 Abu ‛Ubayd al-Juzjani (d. c. 1070)......Page 117 Mu’ayyad al-Din al-‛Urdi30......Page 119 Ibn al-Shatir’s planetary model......Page 122 Ibn al-Shatir and Copernicus......Page 126 The planetary model of Tusi......Page 128 The Mercury model of ‛Urdi......Page 129 The Mercury model of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi......Page 132 Ibn al-Shatir’s model for Mercury......Page 134 The Mercury model of Sadr al-Shari‛a......Page 136 ‛Ala’ al-Din al-Qushji (d. 1474)......Page 137 CONCLUSION......Page 139 NOTES......Page 140 INTRODUCTION......Page 142 THE ORIENTATION OF THE KA‛BA......Page 143 THE ORIENTATION OF THE FIRST MOSQUES......Page 144 FINDING THE QIBLA BY NON-MATHEMATICAL METHODS......Page 146 THE SACRED GEOGRAPHY OF ISLAM......Page 149 FINDING THE QIBLA BY MATHEMATICAL METHODS......Page 155 FINDING THE QIBLA FROM MECCA-CENTRED WORLD-MAPS......Page 163 ON THE ORIENTATION OF ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE......Page 166 FURTHER READING......Page 169 EARLY TEXTS ON GNOMONICS......Page 170 LATE TEXTS ON GNOMONICS......Page 174 SUNDIALS......Page 175 HORIZONTAL SUNDIALS......Page 176 VERTICAL SUNDIALS......Page 179 ASTRONOMICAL COMPENDIA......Page 180 THE TIMES OF THE PRAYERS IN ISLAM......Page 182 SIMPLE ARITHMETICAL SHADOW SCHEMES FOR TIMEKEEPING......Page 183 THE EARLIEST TABLE FOR TIMEKEEPING......Page 185 THE INSTITUTION OF THE MUWAQQIT......Page 188 TIMEKEEPING IN MAMLUK EGYPT......Page 189 TIMEKEEPING IN FOURTEENTH-CENTURY SYRIA......Page 191 TIMEKEEPING IN OTTOMAN TURKEY......Page 193 FURTHER READING......Page 195 INTRODUCTION......Page 198 Determination of latitudes......Page 199 The size of the Earth......Page 200 Base meridians......Page 201 Longitude determinations......Page 203 The Hellenistic heritage......Page 204 Al-Ma’mun’s map......Page 206 Al-Biruni’s contributions......Page 207 The equatorial stereographic projection......Page 211 Al-Idrisi’s map......Page 212 Iranian rectangular co-ordinate maps......Page 213 NOTE......Page 214 The geographical and historical setting......Page 216 The routes and the vessels......Page 218 Nautical terminology......Page 219 Some basic facts of modern astronomical navigation......Page 221 Navigation out of sight of land......Page 222 SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF ARABIC NAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE......Page 223 Other collections of Arabic knowledge......Page 224 Discussion of the sources......Page 225 THE MEANS OF ARABIC NAVIGATION......Page 226 Fingers and the dubban......Page 227 Zams......Page 230 Tirfas (and deviations)......Page 232 Charts......Page 234 The compass (and declination)......Page 237 Declination......Page 238 The woods......Page 239 Other instruments......Page 242 The calendar......Page 243 THE TECHNIQUES OF PLOTTING A POSITION AT SEA USING DEAD RECKONING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATION......Page 245 The accuracy of the course......Page 246 Paired altitudes......Page 250 Co-ordination between the measurement of altitude and the reading of the chart......Page 254 CONCLUSION......Page 255 NOTES......Page 256 INTRODUCTION......Page 258 THE SURVIVAL OF THE ISIDORIAN CULTURE (711–850)......Page 259 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EASTERN CULTURE (850–1031)......Page 262 The Calendar of Córdoba......Page 265 The development of a native pharmacology......Page 266 The school of Maslama al-Majriti......Page 267 THE GREAT EXPANSION OF ANDALUSIAN SCIENCE (ELEVENTH CENTURY)25......Page 271 THE CENTURY OF PHILOSOPHERS......Page 278 THE DECLINE (THIRTEENTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURIES)......Page 284 NOTES......Page 288 8 The heritage of Arabic science in Hebrew......Page 292 NOTES......Page 299 9 The influence of Arabic astronomy in the medieval West......Page 300 THE ASTROLABE AND THE ASTRONOMY OF THE PRIME MOVER......Page 301 THE TOLEDAN TABLES AND PLANETARY ASTRONOMY......Page 302 PLANETARY THEORIES AND THE GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF APPEARANCES......Page 307 THE PROBLEM OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE HYPOTHESES......Page 309 THE PROBLEM OF PRECESSION AND THE ABANDONMENT OF THE TOLEDAN TABLES......Page 311 THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION AND ARABIC ASTRONOMY......Page 314 NOTES......Page 319 Bibliography......Page 322