Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology Chemical Engineering

Cover Page......Page 1 Table of Contents......Page 2 Glossary......Page 4 Absorption Processes......Page 5 Gas Solubility......Page 7 Mass Transfer Principles......Page 8 Dilute Solutions......Page 9 Multicomponent Absorption......Page 10 Absorption with Chemical Reaction......Page 11 Material Balances......Page 12 Dilute Systems......Page 13 Material Balances......Page 14 Absorption Factors......Page 15 Rate Models......Page 17 Process Design......Page 18 Packed Columns......Page 19 Tray Columns......Page 21 Other Contactors......Page 23 Packed Columns......Page 24 Tray Columns......Page 25 Nomenclature......Page 26 References......Page 28 Glossary......Page 29 General Applications......Page 30 Microporous Adsorbents......Page 31 Thermodynamics of Adsorption......Page 32 Adsorption Kinetics......Page 34 Micropore Diffusion......Page 35 External Mass Transfer Resistance......Page 36 Measurement of Intraparticle Diffusivities......Page 37 Adsorption Column Dynamics......Page 38 Mathematical Modeling......Page 39 Chromatography......Page 40 Cyclic Batch Adsorption Processes......Page 41 Thermal Swing Processes......Page 42 Pressure Swing Processes......Page 43 Displacement Desorption......Page 44 Simulated Countercurrent Systems......Page 46 References......Page 48 Glossary......Page 50 Colloidal Stability......Page 51 Natural Phenomena......Page 52 Particle Technology......Page 53 Environmental Influence......Page 55 Critical Physical Properties......Page 56 Particle Size Distribution......Page 57 Chemical Properties......Page 59 Stokes’ Law and Momentum Transfer......Page 60 Phoretic Forces......Page 61 Curvilinear Particle Motion......Page 62 Diffusion Processes......Page 63 Nucleation and Growth......Page 64 Growth Laws......Page 65 Nucleation and Condensation Processes......Page 66 Measurement Principles......Page 67 Electrical Charging and Particle Size......Page 68 Centrifugation......Page 69 Diffusion and Filtration......Page 70 Single-Particle Optical Analyzers......Page 71 Remote Sensing Techniques......Page 72 Macroscopic Techniques......Page 73 Industrial Gas Cleaning......Page 74 Filtration......Page 75 References......Page 76 Glossary......Page 77 Discontinuous Processing......Page 78 Batch Processing Plants......Page 79 Multipurpose Plant......Page 80 Economics of Batch Operations......Page 81 Batch Cost Minimization......Page 82 Batch Process Management......Page 83 Defined Modeling......Page 84 Multistage Modeling......Page 85 Mathematical Expression......Page 86 Solution of the Problem......Page 87 Safety......Page 88 Failure of Materials......Page 90 Stress and Fatigue......Page 91 References......Page 92 Glossary......Page 93 Economics......Page 94 History......Page 95 Mechanisms of Industrial Catalysis Reactions......Page 96 Polyethylene (Ziegler-Natta catalyst)......Page 97 Alcohols from esters......Page 98 Research for Profit......Page 99 Basic Catalysis......Page 100 Licensing......Page 101 References......Page 102 Glossary......Page 103 Particulates......Page 104 Unsupported Particulate Catalysts......Page 105 Gas Adsorption: Surface Area......Page 106 Mercury Intrusion......Page 107 Powders......Page 108 Crush Strength of Single Pellet......Page 109 Attrition and Abrasion......Page 110 Electron Microscopy......Page 111 Elemental Analysis......Page 114 Crystallinity......Page 116 Chemisorption......Page 117 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 118 Crystallite Size by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 119 Electrochemical Technique: Cyclic Voltammetry......Page 120 Surface Composition......Page 121 Complementary Techniques......Page 122 Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 123 Magnetic Resonance......Page 124 Neutrons......Page 125 M ̈ossbauer Spectroscopy......Page 126 References......Page 127 Glossary......Page 129 Process Models......Page 130 Algebraic Equations......Page 131 Partial Differential Equations......Page 132 Flowsheet Simulations......Page 133 Structure of Optimization Problems......Page 134 Unconstrained Optimization......Page 135 Process Synthesis......Page 137 Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis......Page 138 Introduction......Page 139 Process Operation......Page 141 Petroleum Refining Example......Page 143 References......Page 144 Glossary......Page 145 Overview......Page 146 Mode-Selective Chemistry......Page 147 Coherent Phase Control......Page 148 Introduction......Page 154 Perturbative Treatment......Page 157 Optimal Control......Page 159 Experimental Examples of Wave Packet Control......Page 161 Genetic Algorithms......Page 162 Coherent Population Transfer......Page 164 Control of External Degrees of Freedom......Page 165 References......Page 169 Glossary......Page 170 Fluid Properties......Page 171 Superconductivity......Page 173 Refrigeration and Liquefaction......Page 174 Isenthalpic Expansion......Page 175 Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion......Page 176 Cryocoolers......Page 177 Air Separation......Page 178 Rare Gas Recovery......Page 180 Natural Gas Processing......Page 181 Equipment for Cryogenic Processing......Page 182 Expansion Devices......Page 183 Expansion Valve......Page 184 Plate–Fin Exchangers......Page 185 Reversing Exchangers......Page 186 Insulation Concepts......Page 187 Multilayer Insulation......Page 188 Storage Systems......Page 189 Instrumentation......Page 190 Human Hazards......Page 191 Flammability and Detonability......Page 192 References......Page 193 Glossary......Page 194 Objectives of Crystallization Processes......Page 195 Solid–Liquid Equilibrium......Page 196 Mass and Energy Balances......Page 198 Supersaturation......Page 200 Mechanisms......Page 201 Mechanisms......Page 202 Fundamentals of Crystal Growth......Page 203 Crystal Growth in Mixed Crystallizers......Page 204 Crystal Purity......Page 205 Crystal Morphology......Page 206 Crystal Size Distributions......Page 208 Relationship of Solubility to Mode of Operation......Page 211 Crystallizers......Page 212 Perfectly Mixed, Continuous Crystallizers......Page 214 Preferential Removal of Crystals......Page 216 Batch Crystallization......Page 219 Summary......Page 221 References......Page 222 Glossary......Page 223 General Description......Page 224 Distillation Theory......Page 227 Distillation Column Design......Page 229 Calculation of the Required Number of Theoretical Stages......Page 230 Flash Distillation......Page 231 Reactive Distillation......Page 232 Energy Consumption......Page 233 Distillation Column Control......Page 234 References......Page 235 Glossary......Page 236 Cell Description......Page 237 Potential......Page 238 Ion Conduction......Page 239 Electrode Kinetics......Page 240 Governing Equations......Page 242 Mass-Transfer Boundary Layer......Page 243 Primary Current Distribution......Page 244 Tertiary Current Distribution......Page 245 Current Distribution Characteristics......Page 246 Process Modeling......Page 247 Technical Factors......Page 248 Energy Conversion Systems......Page 249 Future Developments......Page 250 References......Page 252 Glossary......Page 253 Generic Principle of Balance......Page 254 Equations of Motion......Page 255 Entropy Production Principle......Page 257 Constitutive Relations......Page 258 Momentum Balance......Page 259 Head concept......Page 260 Pump or work head......Page 261 Thermal Energy (Heat Transfer)......Page 263 Newtonian......Page 264 Friction Factors......Page 265 Power law......Page 266 Reynolds Stresses......Page 267 Mixing Length Models......Page 268 Other Closure Models......Page 269 Specific design conditions......Page 270 Herschel–Bulkley Model Pipe Flow......Page 271 Hydraulic Grade Line Method......Page 272 Pumps......Page 274 Centrifugal pumps......Page 275 Drag Coefficients......Page 276 See also the Following Articles......Page 277 References......Page 278 Glossary......Page 279 General Principles......Page 280 Shear Rate......Page 282 Baffles and Impeller Position......Page 283 Process Considerations......Page 284 Scaleup Relationships......Page 287 Role of Dynamic and Geometric Similarity......Page 288 Liquid-Solid Contacting......Page 290 Gas-Liquid Contacting......Page 292 Effect of Gas Rate on Power Consumption......Page 294 Liquid Extraction......Page 295 Low-Viscosity Blending......Page 296 Side-Entering Mixers......Page 297 Fluid Motion......Page 298 Heat Transfer......Page 299 Inline Mixers......Page 300 Pilot Plant Procedures......Page 301 Shear Rate Magnitude and Total Shear Work......Page 302 What to Do in the Pilot Plant......Page 303 References......Page 304 Glossary......Page 319 Pressure as a Thermodynamic Variable......Page 320 Static Apparatus......Page 321 Dynamic Pressure Generation......Page 326 General Considerations of Phase Changes......Page 327 Diamond Synthesis......Page 328 Synthesis of Other Inorganic Materials......Page 330 Journey to the Center of the Earth......Page 331 Reference......Page 332 Glossary......Page 305 Applications in Chemical Engineering......Page 306 Criteria for Selection......Page 307 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers......Page 308 Plate-Fin Exchanger......Page 311 Air-Cooled Exchangers......Page 312 Other Types of Heat Exchangers......Page 313 Rate Equation......Page 314 The Design Integral and the Mean Temperature Difference......Page 315 The Design Process......Page 316 See also the Following Articles......Page 317 References......Page 318 Glossary......Page 334 Diffusion Across a Thin Film......Page 335 Diffusion of a Pulse......Page 336 Problems with this Simple Picture......Page 337 Dispersion......Page 338 Mass Transfer......Page 339 Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 340 Problems with Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 341 Conclusions......Page 342 References......Page 343 Glossary......Page 344 Major Membrane Application Types......Page 345 Simple Effects......Page 347 Hindered Transport......Page 348 Concentration Polarization and Fouling in MF, UF,and NF......Page 349 Sorption-Diffusion Separation Mechanisms......Page 351 Membrane Material Selection......Page 352 Membrane Modularization and Packaging......Page 353 Simple” Sorption-Diffusion Mechanism......Page 356 Ion-Conducting Membranes......Page 362 Strategies to Deal with Gas Separation Membranes Shortcomings......Page 363 Crosslinking Approach......Page 364 Mixed Matrix Approach......Page 365 Hydrogen Separations......Page 366 Air Separation......Page 368 Acid Gas Removal......Page 371 Organic Vapor Separations......Page 372 Pervaporation......Page 373 Alcohol Dehydration......Page 374 Production of Organic Acid Esters......Page 376 Membrane Distillation......Page 377 Reverse Osmosis......Page 378 Ultrafiltration......Page 383 Microfiltration......Page 385 Membrane Solvent Extraction/Membrane Contactors......Page 386 Emulsified Liquid Membranes......Page 387 Facilitated Transport and Coupled Transport......Page 388 Industrial Dialysis......Page 389 Electrodialysis......Page 390 Electrolysis......Page 391 Bipolar Membrane Syntheses......Page 392 Catalytic Membrane Reactors for Chemical Processing......Page 393 Applications in Discovery and Research......Page 394 Separation by Size or Charge Discrimination......Page 396 High-Performance Tangential Flow Filtration......Page 397 Membrane-Based Affinity Separation......Page 398 Membrane Bioreactors......Page 399 Hemodialysis, Hemofiltration......Page 401 Blood Oxygenation......Page 402 Controlled Release......Page 404 Active Controlled Release......Page 405 Membrane Sensors......Page 406 References......Page 407 Glossary......Page 410 Historical Development of MOCVD......Page 411 General Description of the MOCVD Process......Page 412 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 413 General Description of MOCVD Growth Systems......Page 415 Properties of Common Metalorganics And Hydrides Used For Mocvd......Page 418 GaAs and AlGaAs......Page 421 InAlGaP/GaAs......Page 422 IV–VI Semiconductor Compounds......Page 423 Other Developments In Mocvd......Page 424 References......Page 425 Introduction......Page 427 History of Pollution Prevention......Page 428 How Does one Define Pollution Prevention?......Page 429 Drivers for Pollution Prevention......Page 430 The Recipe for Success......Page 433 Establishing the Program......Page 435 Implementation Phase......Page 436 Resources......Page 437 Engineering Evaluations of the Preferred Options......Page 438 When Should one Do Pollution Prevention?......Page 439 Program Elements—U.S. EPA and DuPont Chambers Works Waste Minimization Project......Page 440 Process Analysis—Replace Solvent with a Process Intermediate, Product, or Feed......Page 441 Conclusion......Page 442 References......Page 443 Glossary......Page 444 Historical Development of the Pulp and Paper Industry......Page 445 Furnish for Pulp and Paper......Page 446 Wood Quality......Page 447 Kraft Pulping......Page 448 Other Options......Page 449 Process Considerations......Page 450 The Range of Mechanical Pulping......Page 451 Prospectus......Page 453 Chemistry of Bleaching......Page 454 Papermaking......Page 456 Process Considerations in Papermaking......Page 457 Tissue:......Page 458 References......Page 459 Glossary......Page 461 Heterogeneous......Page 462 Classification......Page 463 Classification......Page 464 Advantages–Disadvantages......Page 465 Description......Page 466 Use of the Reaction Coordinate or Molar Extent of Reaction......Page 467 Rate Expressions......Page 469 General Reactor Design Equation......Page 470 Variable Volume Batch Reactors.......Page 471 Ideal Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor Design Equations.......Page 472 Space Time......Page 473 Batch Versus Flow Reactors......Page 474 Special Reactor Configurations......Page 475 Classification......Page 476 Description......Page 477 Applications......Page 478 Description......Page 479 Classification......Page 480 References......Page 481 Glossary......Page 482 Equilibrium in Extraction Systems......Page 483 Rates of Mass Transfer......Page 485 Stagewise Processes......Page 486 Differential Contact......Page 487 Industrial Extraction Equipment......Page 488 Unagitated Columns......Page 489 Mixer–Settlers......Page 490 Pulsed Columns......Page 492 Mechanically Agitated Columns......Page 493 Centrifugal Extractors......Page 494 Organic Processes......Page 495 Antibiotics......Page 496 Food Processing......Page 498 Biopolymer extraction......Page 499 Nuclear Industry......Page 500 Phosphoric Acid......Page 501 Membrane Extraction......Page 502 References......Page 503 Glossary......Page 504 Amphoteric Surfactants......Page 505 The Hydrophilic–Lipophil Balance (HLB)......Page 506 Physical Properties of Surfactant Solutions......Page 507 Thermodynamics of Micellization......Page 509 Adsorption of Surfactant at the Solid/Liquid Interface......Page 510 Surfactants as Emulsifiers......Page 511 Surfactants as Dispersants......Page 512 Role of Surfactants in Stabilization of Emulsions and Suspensions......Page 513 Surfactants in Foams......Page 515 Application of Surfactants in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products......Page 516 Application of Surfactants in Pharmaceuticals......Page 517 Application of Surfactants in the Food Industry......Page 518 References......Page 519 Glossary......Page 520 History......Page 521 Gasification......Page 523 Synthesis......Page 525 Gas from Coal......Page 526 Liquids and Clean Solids from Coal......Page 528 Liquids from Oil Shale and Tar Sands......Page 530 Conversion Processes......Page 532 References......Page 533 Glossary......Page 534 Major Feedstocks and Products......Page 535 Chemistry of Pryolysis Gas-Phase Reactions)......Page 536 Kinetics of Pyrolysis......Page 537 Coke Formation......Page 538 Oxide Layer in Inner Surface of Coils in Furnaces......Page 539 Cracking Furnace and Reactor......Page 541 Product Gas Cooling and Compression......Page 544 Product Separation......Page 545 Cracking Reactor and Heat Recovery Equipment......Page 546 References......Page 547