دانشنامه علم فیزیکی و فناوری، ویرایش سوم، نرم‌افزار کامپیوتری

Cover ......Page 1 Glossary......Page 2 Brief Description......Page 3 The First Dartmouth Basic......Page 4 A Number is a Number is a Number; that is, there is Only One Kind of Number in Basic......Page 5 Basic Should be Blank Insensitive; That is, a User Should be able to Type in a Program without Regard to Blank Spaces......Page 6 Strings are Added......Page 7 Overlays are Added......Page 8 Personal Computers Appear......Page 9 Multiple Statements on a Line......Page 10 Strings Proliferate......Page 11 Structured Programming......Page 12 Subroutines......Page 13 BASIC Loses Favor......Page 14 Standard BASIC......Page 15 Basic as a Major Application Language......Page 17 References......Page 18 Glossary......Page 19 The Evolution of C and C++......Page 20 Data Types......Page 21 Operators......Page 22 Control Structures......Page 25 Procedures......Page 27 The C Preprocessor......Page 28 Operator-Rich Syntax......Page 29 Explicit Pointer Usage......Page 30 Key C++ Features......Page 31 Function Overloading......Page 32 Classes......Page 33 Inheritance......Page 34 Exceptions......Page 35 Namespaces......Page 36 Standard Template Library......Page 37 Reference......Page 38 Background and Motivation......Page 39 Viruses, Worms, and so Forth......Page 40 Prevention and Detection......Page 41 Conclusion......Page 42 References......Page 43 Glossary......Page 44 Algorithms and Programs......Page 45 Algorithm Design......Page 47 Performance Analysis and Measurement......Page 49 Analysis......Page 50 Measurement......Page 52 Lower Bounds......Page 53 Np-Hard and Np-Complete Problems......Page 54 Nondeterminism......Page 55 NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems......Page 56 Approximation Algorithms......Page 57 Other Heuristics......Page 58 See also the Following Articles......Page 59 References......Page 60 Glossary......Page 61 Introduction......Page 62 Cryptosystems: A Mathematical Definition......Page 63 Types of Attacks and Attackers......Page 64 System Attacks......Page 65 Electronic Codebook Mode (ECB)......Page 66 Counter Mode (CTR)......Page 67 Data Encryption Standard (DES)......Page 68 Differential cryptanalysis......Page 69 Advanced Encryption Standard......Page 70 Public Key Cryptography......Page 71 Probabilistic Encryption......Page 72 An RSA Example......Page 73 Re-encryption attacks and safe primes......Page 74 Key Distribution Andmanagement......Page 75 Public Key Infrastructures......Page 76 References......Page 77 Glossary......Page 78 The Data Mining Process......Page 79 Rule Induction......Page 80 Discovery of Interestingness......Page 81 Uncertainty Handling......Page 82 Inferencing Rules......Page 83 Neural Networks......Page 84 Statistical Techniques......Page 85 Fuzzy Logic......Page 86 Data Manipulation Techniques......Page 87 Advanced Database Technology......Page 88 Distributed Processing......Page 89 Distributed Data Mining......Page 90 Security and Privacy Aspects of Data Mining......Page 91 Business......Page 92 Science......Page 93 Future Developments......Page 94 References......Page 95 Glossary......Page 96 Memory Allocation and Algorithms......Page 98 Hierarchical Data Structures......Page 100 Linear and Indexed Structures......Page 101 Searching and Sorting Techniques......Page 103 Searching: Algorithms and Data Structures......Page 104 Example (Pictures)......Page 105 Randomness, Order, and Selectivity......Page 106 References......Page 108 Glossary......Page 109 Data Models......Page 110 The Relational Data Model......Page 111 Object-Oriented Data Models......Page 112 Object-Relational Data Models......Page 115 Relational Database Languages......Page 116 Object-Oriented Database Languages......Page 117 Deductive Databases......Page 118 Active Databases......Page 120 Distributed Databases......Page 121 Data Warehouses......Page 123 References......Page 124 Glossary......Page 125 Solution Landscapes......Page 126 Evolutionary Algorithms......Page 128 Genetic Algorithms......Page 129 Genetic Programming......Page 130 Initial Population......Page 131 Evolutionary Programming......Page 132 Evolutionary Strategies......Page 133 Grammatical Evolution......Page 134 Simulated Annealing......Page 135 Memetic Algorithms......Page 136 References......Page 137 Glossary......Page 138 Introduction......Page 139 Quantization......Page 140 Compression......Page 141 Difference Coding and Transform Coding......Page 142 Recent Trends......Page 143 Grayscale Modification......Page 144 Blur Reduction......Page 146 Noise Cleaning......Page 148 Deconvolution......Page 149 Reconstruction......Page 150 Template Matching......Page 153 Image Registration......Page 154 Stereomapping and Range Sensing......Page 155 Image Sequence Analysis......Page 157 Shape from Shading......Page 159 Shape from Shape......Page 160 Feature Detection......Page 161 Region Extraction......Page 163 Geometry-Based Decomposition......Page 166 Subset Representation......Page 167 Properties and Relations......Page 168 Relational Structures and Recognition......Page 169 Knowledge-Based Recognition Systems......Page 170 Meshes......Page 171 References......Page 172 Glossary......Page 174 Variety of Applications, Ties with the Computer Technology. Vast Bibliography. Packages of Subroutines......Page 175 General and Special Linear Systems. Direct and Iterative Methods. Sensitivity to Errors......Page 176 Solving a Differential Equation......Page 177 Hitchcock Transportation Problem. Linear Programming Problem......Page 178 Approximating Data by Curves. Overdetermined Linear Systems. Normal Equations, Reduction to Linear Programming Problems......Page 179 Solving Triangular Systems by Back Substitution......Page 181 Forward Elimination Stage of Gaussian Elimination......Page 182 Gaussian Elimination Performed with Finite Precision. Pivoting Policies. Complete Pivoting for Singular Systems......Page 184 Block Matrix Algorithms......Page 185 Some Modifications of LU Factorization. Choleski’s Factorization. Block Factorizations of a Matrix......Page 186 Error and Residual Vectors. Vector and Matrix Norms. Condition Number......Page 187 Sensitivity of Algorithms for Linear Systems to Round-Off Errors......Page 188 Application to Overdetermined Systems......Page 189 Computing the Minimum 2-Norm Solution to an Underdetermined System......Page 190 Asymptotic and Practical Accelerations of Solving General Linear Systems......Page 191 Banded, Block-Banded, Banded-Symmetric, and Symmetric Systems......Page 192 Toeplitz, Hankel, and Vandermonde Systems and Their Correlation to Polynomial Operations......Page 193 Some Policies of Pivoting for Sparse Systems......Page 194 Iterative Algorithms for Sparse and Special Dense Linear Systems......Page 195 Influence of the Development of Vector and Parallel Computers on Solving Linear Systems......Page 197 References......Page 198 Glossary......Page 199 Where Operating Systems are Required......Page 200 Functions of an Operating System......Page 201 Starting Up......Page 202 Simple Process Management......Page 203 Managing process execution......Page 204 Scheduling......Page 205 Processor scheduling......Page 206 Real-time considerations.......Page 207 Contention for resources......Page 208 Single application processes......Page 209 Simple paging......Page 210 Combined segmentation and paging......Page 211 General Introduction......Page 212 Contiguous space allocation methods......Page 214 Indexed block chaining......Page 215 Organizing Data for Access......Page 216 Two-level directories......Page 217 Data Protection and Integrity......Page 218 Delay and Failure......Page 219 References......Page 220 See also the Following Articles......Page 221 Glossary......Page 222 Application Areas......Page 223 Closed-World Assumption......Page 224 Conjunctions......Page 225 Unification and Logical Variables......Page 226 Horn Clauses......Page 227 Lists......Page 228 Example: Permutations......Page 229 Position and Associativity......Page 230 True and Fail......Page 231 Repeat......Page 232 Input/Output for Terms......Page 233 Arithmetic......Page 234 Manipulating Structured Terms......Page 235 Term Comparison......Page 236 Arguments of Nonterminals and Mixing Grammar Rules and Prolog Code......Page 237 A Grammar Example......Page 238 Meta-level Programming......Page 239 Introduction......Page 240 Imposing Constraints on Variables......Page 241 Labeling Domain Variables......Page 242 Rectangle with Maximum Area......Page 243 References......Page 244 Glossary......Page 246 Activity Networks......Page 248 The Need for Defined Development Life Cycles......Page 249 The Incremental Model......Page 250 Rapid Application Development......Page 251 Creating the Project Team......Page 252 Configuration Management......Page 253 Prioritizing Risk......Page 254 A Taxonomy of Software Effort Estimation Methods......Page 255 COCOMO: An Example of an Algorithmic Model......Page 256 Function Points......Page 257 Reviews, Inspections, and Walkthroughs......Page 258 Quality Plans......Page 259 References......Page 260 Glossary......Page 261 System Model......Page 262 Interface Definition......Page 263 Computational Model......Page 264 Formal Modeling and Verification......Page 265 Introduction......Page 266 Fault Tolerance with Global Time......Page 267 Fault Tolerance without Global Time......Page 268 Conclusion......Page 269 References......Page 270 Introduction......Page 271 Agreeing Requirements......Page 272 Requirements to Elicit......Page 273 Enterprise Modeling......Page 274 Context and Groundwork......Page 275 Summary and Conclusions......Page 276 References......Page 277 Glossary......Page 279 Historical Perspective......Page 280 Board-to-Board......Page 281 Smart Imaging and Vision Chips......Page 282 Monolithic vs. Hybrid......Page 283 Optical Output......Page 284 Flip-chip bonding.......Page 285 Wafer fusion.......Page 286 Performance......Page 287 Functionality......Page 288 Fabricated smart pixel arrays......Page 289 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems MEMS......Page 291 Redundancy Based on Reconfiguration......Page 292 References......Page 293 Glossary......Page 294 A Brief History of Software Engineering......Page 295 Application Software......Page 296 The Software Life Cycle......Page 297 The Waterfall Model......Page 298 Spiral Model......Page 299 Process Quality......Page 300 Requirements Engineering......Page 301 Software Architecture......Page 302 Software Design and Specification......Page 303 Testing......Page 304 Reviews and Inspections......Page 305 Management of Software Engineering......Page 306 References......Page 307 Glossary......Page 308 Software Maintenance......Page 309 Models and Process in Software Maintenance......Page 310 Level 1, The System Level......Page 311 Level 2, The Function Level......Page 313 Level 3, The Data Level......Page 314 General Recommendations......Page 316 References......Page 317 Glossary......Page 318 Usage and Reliability Modeling......Page 319 Purpose......Page 320 Algorithmic Model......Page 321 Grammar Model......Page 322 State Hierarchy Model......Page 323 Derivation of Usage Data......Page 324 Failure and Test Data......Page 325 Definitions......Page 326 Time between Failure Models......Page 327 Failure Count Models......Page 328 Reliability Demonstration......Page 329 Purpose......Page 330 Summary......Page 331 References......Page 332 The Input Domain......Page 333 The Internal Structure......Page 334 The Development of Testing Methods......Page 335 A General Strategy for Testing......Page 336 System Testing......Page 337 Functional Testing Techniques......Page 338 References......Page 339 Glossary......Page 340 The Way the Web Works......Page 341 Universal Resource Identifier URL......Page 343 HyperText Transfer Protocol HTTP......Page 345 HyperText Markup Language HTML......Page 347 References......Page 350