Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy. 2, Pharmacy practice research methods, Pharmacoepidemiology and pharmacovigilance

__Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy__ covers definitions, concepts, methods, theories and applications of clinical pharmacy and pharmacy practice. It highlights why and how this field has a significant impact on healthcare. The work brings baseline knowledge, along with the latest, most cutting-edge research. In addition, new treatments, algorithms, standard treatment guidelines, and pharmacotherapies regarding diseases and disorders are also covered. The book's main focus lies on the pharmacy practice side, covering pharmacy practice research, pharmacovigilance, pharmacoeconomics, social and administrative pharmacy, public health pharmacy, pharmaceutical systems research, the future of pharmacy, and new interventional models of pharmaceutical care. By providing concise expositions on a broad range of topics, this book is an excellent resource for those seeking information beyond their specific areas of expertise. This outstanding reference is essential for anyone involved in the study of pharmacy practice. * Provides a ‘one-stop’ resource for access to information written by world-leading scholars in the field * Meticulously organized, with articles split into three clear sections, it is the ideal resource for students, researchers and professionals to find relevant information * Contains concise and accessible chapters that are ideal as an authoritative introduction for non-specialists and readers from the undergraduate level upwards * Includes multimedia options, such as hyperlinked references and further readings, cross-references and videos Cover Vol 1 - Vol 1 - Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy Title page Copyright page Contents of all Volumes List of Contributors to Volume 1 Editor Biographies Editor-In-Chief Section Editors Foreword Preface Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy Dedication Pharmacy Practice and Its Research: Evolution and Definitions The Development of Pharmacy Practice Research Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Research and Its Literature Definition and Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Conclusion List of Abbreviations References Further Reading Research Designs and Methodologies Related to Pharmacy Practice Learning Objectives Introduction to Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice Core Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Used in Pharmacy Practice Research Research Question and Selection of Study Design Classification of Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice Quantitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice Observational Study Designs Case-Control Studies Cohort Studies Case-Crossover Studies Cross-Sectional Studies Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Study Designs Other Quantitative Study Designs Simulated Client Method Discrete Choice Experiments Qualitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice Interpretative Framework and Philosophical Assumptions of Qualitative Research Interpretative Frameworks Philosophical Assumptions Approaches to Inquiry (Methodology) Data Collection and Analysis Methods in Qualitative Research Quality Perspectives in Qualitative Research Ethical Considerations Mixed Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research Summary and Take-Home Messages Conclusion Glossary References Further Reading Quantitative Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research Background Pharmacy and Research Methods Types of Quantitative Research Methods Nonexperimental Research Methods Observational Research Method Limitations of Observational Research Method Archived Data Research Method Collecting Data from Administrative Datasets Secondary Analysis of Primary Data Survey Research Method Method of Data Collection for Surveys Bias in Survey Sampling bias Recall bias Social desirability bias Experimental Research Methods Pre-experimental Research Method Limitations Quasi-experimental Research Method Limitations True Experimental Research Method Limitations Single-Subject Research Method Limitations Validation of a Research Method Conclusion References Qualitative Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research Introduction Choosing an Appropriate Qualitative Method Finding Meanings by Analyzing Concepts Content Analysis Framework Analysis Delphi Technique Grounded Theory Finding Meanings by Analyzing Themes Thematic Analysis Discourse Analysis Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis Collecting Qualitative Data and Reporting Results Sampling and Recruitment of Participants Gathering and Preparing Qualitative Data Collecting Data Which Is Observed Collecting Data Which Is Written Collecting Data Which Is Shared Ethical Issues Reporting and Writing up Results Final Considerations and Steps to Go Further Glossary References List of Relevant Websites Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice Introduction What Is Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research? Types of Meta-Synthesis Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice Examples of Meta-Synthesis in Pharmacy Practice Step-by-Step Guide to Meta-Synthesize Qualitative Literature in Pharmacy Practice Step 1 Frame a Clear Research Question/Objective Step 2 Strategize the Search Step 3 Define and Refine an Inclusion Criterion Step 4 Synthesize New Knowledge Conclusion Acknowledgment References Mixed Methods Research in Pharmacy Practice: Basics and Beyond Introduction What is Mixed Methods Research? Planning of Mixed Methods Research Mixed Methods Research Designs: How to Use Them? The Exploratory Sequential Design The Explanatory Sequential Design The Convergent Parallel Design The Embedded Design Literature Review: Mixed Methods Studies in Pharmacy Practice Approaches of Integration of Findings in Mixed Methods Research Quality in Mixed Methods Research What are the Challenges in Using Mixed Methods Research Application of Mixed Methods Methodology in a Program of Inquiry Conclusion References Publication Bias Background Role of Publication Bias in Evidence-Based Clinical Decision Making History of Publication Bias Types Multiple Publication Bias Time Lag Bias Location Bias Citation Bias Language Bias Outcome Reporting Bias Confirmatory Bias Funding Bias Factors Contributing Toward Publication Bias Design and Implementation of Study Publication Bias due to Unpublished Studies Publication Bias due to Rejection of Journals Sponsorship Methods of Detecting and Correcting for Publication Bias Unpublished Data and Publication Bias Graphical and Statistical Methods Funnel Plot Fail-Safe N Test Orwin's Fail-Safe N Duval and Tweedie's Trim and Fill Comparison of Published and Unpublished Data Analyzing Larger Studies Only Technological Aids in the Detection of Publication Bias Comprehensive Meta Analysis (Version 2.0) Review Manager (Version 4.2) Stata (Version 8.2) MetaWin (Version 2.0) Tackling Publication Bias Trial Registries Data Availability Mandating Publication Open Access Journals Peer Review Process and Publication Bias Editorial Policy Conclusion References List of Relevant Websites Further Reading Discrete Choice Experiment Introduction Discrete Choice Experiment Definition Theoretical Foundation of Discrete Choice Experiments Design and Administration of Discrete Choice Experiments Analysis and Interpretation Applications in Pharmacy Practice Research Studies of Pharmaceutical Services Studies of Pharmaceutical Products Summary Glossary References Further Reading List of Relevant Web Pages Quality of Qualitative Research Chapter Overview Introduction Process-Oriented Approach: Practices to Ensure Rigour and Trustworthiness Triangulation Self-Description/Reflexivity Member Checking Prolonged Engagement Audit Trail Peer Debriefing Thick Description Output-Oriented Approach: Quality of Reporting of Qualitative Research Significance of Quality of Reporting to Stakeholders Reporting Guidelines Reporting Guidelines: Do They Improve Quality? Common Reporting Guidelines for Qualitative Research Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research Development of the COREQ Checklist Uses and Benefits of COREQ Limitations of COREQ Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research Development of the Standards Uses and Benefits of SRQR Limitations of SRQR Conclusion References Further Reading Clinical Pharmacists as Principal Investigators in Clinical Trials Introduction Ethics in Clinical Trials Roles and Responsibilities of the PI in Clinical Trials Clinical Pharmacists in Clinical Research The ACCP's Position Statement for Clinical Pharmacists Working as PIs (ACCP, 2000a; ) Recommended Education and Training for Clinical Pharmacists to Work as PIs Clinical Research Training Programs for Clinical Pharmacists Other Clinical Research Training Programs The Role of Clinical Pharmacist in Improving Adherence Issues in Clinical Trials The Importance of Integrating Clinical Pharmacists in Clinical Trials Enhancing Medication-Related Aspects of Clinical Trials by Integrating Clinical Pharmacists Pharmaceutical Industry Considerations Summary and Conclusions References Further Reading Evidence-Based Pharmacy Practice Research in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Issues, Challenges and Synthesis Pharmacy Practice in Low-Middle-Income Countries Is Pharmacy Practice Research Lacking In LMICs? Major Health Issues of LMICs Role of Evidence in Health-Care Systems Quality Quantity Diversity Rational Use of Medicine Pharmaceutical Care/Managed Care Formulary and Procurement Systems Preparation and Distribution of Medicines Medication Error Reporting Access to Essential Medicines Quality of Medicine Managing Medicine Supply Chains The Need for Basic Household Data on Medicine Use Low Literacy and Health Education Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health and Micronutrient Deficiency Review Contributions of LMICs in Top-Tier Pharmacy Journal(s) The Way Forward Promoting Quality Evidence Through Systematic Reviews Use of Standard Protocols Completeness of Search in Reviews Source of Research Funding Gaps in Academic Training in Research Methodologies Take Home Message Conclusion References Implementation Science Introduction Foundations of Implementation Science Terminology Theoretical Approaches: Frameworks, Models and Theories Core Concepts of Implementation Science Generic Implementation Framework (GIF) Innovation: What is to be Implemented? Contextual Domains: Where and for Whom is it to be Implemented? Implementation Factors Implementation Process: How and by Whom is it to be Implemented? Implementation Strategies Implementation Evaluation/Outcomes Framework for the Implementation of Services in Pharmacy (FISpH) Model for the Evaluation of Implementation Programs and Professional Pharmacy Services Implementation Science Research Methods Study Design Experimental Design Quasi-experimental and/or Observational Design Alternative Randomized Design Stakeholder Involvement Data Collection Data Analysis Summary Glossary References Further Reading List of Relevant Web Pages Network Meta-Analysis in Pharmacy Practice Research Introduction Network Meta-Analysis Concept History Fundamentals of Network Meta-Analysis Assumptions of Network Meta-Analysis Analytical Methods Critical Appraisal of Network Meta-Analysis and Findings Reporting and Interpreting Results Use of NMA in Pharmacy Research Pharmaceutical Products Evaluation Evaluation of Pharmacy Services Conclusion Glossary Web References References Ethnography in Pharmacy Policy and Practice Introduction What is Ethnography? Introduction Defining Ethnography Origins of Ethnography Different Types of Ethnography Doing Ethnography Introduction Sampling Immersion Data Collection Tools Observation Interviews Ethnographic Content Analysis Mixed Methods and Ethnography Data Analysis Process Theory in Ethnography Rigor Ethnographic Writing Ethnography in Health Services Research Pharmacy Practice and Policy Research Overview Literature Review Lessons from Ethnographies of Pharmacy Practice Pharmacist Culture Patient-Pharmacy Interaction Culture Global Pharmacy Culture Discussion Conclusion References Philosophical Perspectives and Theories Applied in Pharmacy Practice Research Philosophical Perspectives Paradigms/Belief Systems History of Philosophical Perspectives and Theories in Pharmacy Practice Research The Why and How of Theory Base in Pharmacy Practice Research Main Theories and Models Applied in Pharmacy Practice Research Grounded Theory Behavioral Change Theories and Models Patient Safety Theory and Models Learning Theories Patient-Pharmacist Interaction Theories Theories of GP-Pharmacist Collaboration Organizational Theories Technology Theories Political Science Theories Ethics The Future References Further Reading Principles, Paradigms, and Application of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice Learning Objectives Qualitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice and the Limit of the Evidence Interpretative Frameworks and Philosophical Assumptions Interpretative Frameworks Philosophical Assumptions Approaches to Inquiry (Methodology) and Case Applications Narrative Research Phenomenological Research Grounded Theory Research Ethnographic Research Case Study Research Methods in Qualitative Research Data Collection Methods Documents Individual Interviews Focus Groups Data Analysis Methods Thematic Analysis Content Analysis Discourse Analysis Quality Perspectives in Qualitative Research Trustworthiness Criteria for Ensuring Quality in Qualitative Research Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability Reflexivity in Qualitative Research Conclusion and Take-Home Messages References Further Reading Medicines Management: The Core of Pharmacy Practice 1 Introduction 2 What Is Medicines Management? 2.1 Common Definitions 2.2 Associated Terms 2.3 The Scope of Medicines Management 3 Why Is Medicines Management Increasingly Becoming Important? 3.1 Factors Driving the Medicines Management Agenda 3.1.1 A Changing Demographic 3.1.2 Policy and Economic Drivers 3.1.2.1 Growing cost of care and medicines 3.1.2.2 Improving medicine adherence 3.1.2.3 The cost of adverse drug events (ADEs) 3.1.3 Pharmacy's Professionalization Project 4 Pharmacy's Involvement in Medicines Management 4.1 The Patient-Centered Care Agenda 4.2 Medication Review 4.2.1 Evidencing Medication Review Outcomes 4.2.2 Community Pharmacy Medication Review Services: An International Perspective 4.2.2.1 Home medicines review (HMR) 4.2.2.2 Medicines use reviews (MURs) and the new medicines service (NMS) 4.2.2.3 Medication therapy management (MRM) 4.2.2.4 Medicines use review and adherence support services (MURs) 4.2.2.5 Polymedication-checks 4.3 Community Pharmacist Involvement in Other Medicines Management Activities 4.3.1 Pharmacists in General Practice 4.3.2 Pharmacist Prescribing 4.4 Medicines Management in Hospitals: The Role of Clinical Pharmacy 4.4.1 The Role of the Drugs and Therapeutics Committee (DTC) 4.5 Medicines Management at the Primary-Secondary Interface 4.6 Medication Errors 4.7 Medicines Management in Industry 4.8 Facilitators and Barriers 4.8.1 Common Barriers to Medicines Management 4.8.2 Common Facilitators to Medicines Management 5 Emerging Medicines Management Opportunities 5.1 eHealth 5.2 Antimicrobial Resistance and Stewardship (AMS) 5.3 Deprescribing 5.4 Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicines 6 Concluding Remarks References Further Reading Historical Evolution of Pharmacy Practice 1 History and Definition 1.1 A Change in Medicines Production 1.2 A Change in Education of Pharmacists 1.3 A Change in Information Availability 2 A Time for Change 3 Pharmaceutical Care 4 Modern Pharmacy Practice 5 Evolution of Community Pharmacy Practice 5.1 New Community Pharmacy Services 6 Evolution of Hospital Pharmacy 7 Evolution of Academic Pharmacy 8 Evolution of Other Areas of Pharmacy Practice 9 Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Around the Globe 9.1 USA and Canada 9.2 UK 9.3 Europe 9.4 Japan 9.5 Middle East 9.6 Asia 9.7 Under-Resourced Countries 10 A Look into the Future References Further Reading Codes of Conduct/Ethics in Pharmacy Practice 1 Introduction 2 What Is a ``Code ́ ́? 2.1 Professional Codes, Policies, Standards, and Guidelines 2.2 Professional Values and Ethical Principles Evident in Codes for Pharmacists 2.3 Professional Values as a Basis for Developing Transdisciplinary Codes 3 Why Develop a Code? 3.1 A Code as a Declaration of What Society May Expect of Members of the Profession 3.2 A Code as a Guide to Practitioners 3.3 A Code as a Guide to Educators 3.4 A Code to Serve the Public Interests and Support the Regulatory Process 3.5 A Code to Facilitate the Profession's Social Contract with the Public 4 How Might a Code be Developed? 4.1 Strategies for Drafting ``Pharmacy ́ ́ Codes: Insights from the Literature 4.1.1 ``Theoretical Considerations ́ ́ for a Meaningful Code 4.1.2 ``Reasons ́ ́ for Having a Code of ``Pharmaceutical Ethics ́ ́ 4.1.3 Development of a Code of Conduct for a ``University Faculty ́ ́ 4.1.4 Codes for a ``National Pharmaceutical System ́ ́ 4.2 Enabling the Development of Codes 4.3 Education for and Understanding of the Code's Aims and Applications 5 Why Might a Code ``Fail ́ ́ to Achieve its Aims? 5.1 The Need to Assure Understanding (of the Code) Among Members of the Profession 5.2 The Need to Enable Mediation to Address Misunderstandings Among Stakeholders 5.3 The Need to Enable Enforcement of the Code: If Applicable to the Context 6 Websites References Further Reading Community and Ambulatory Pharmacy Practice Introduction Changing Community Pharmacy Landscape Ownership Models Dispensing and Workflow Drug Reform and Generic Deflation Understand the Evolving Roles of All the Key Pharmacy Players Pharmacy Labor Investments are Instrumental to Sustainability Traditional Measures of Pharmacy Productivity are No Longer Applicable Pharmacy Contribution for Professional Services is Higher than Dispensing Activities Embrace Technology to Enhance Productivity Patient Care Services Medication Reviews Experience To-Date Disease State-Specific Consultation Programs Smoking Cessation Minor Ailment Prescribing and Assessment Immunization Influenza Vaccination Beyond Influenza Pharmacist-Directed Travel Clinics Point-of-Care Testing A1C Testing Blood Pressure Monitoring and Management Lipid Screening and Cardiovascular Risk Assessment Chronic Kidney Disease Screening Atrial Fibrillation Screening Strep Testing Influenza Screening Helicobacter pylori Testing Pharmacogenomics Conclusion Acknowledgments References Further Reading Hospital Pharmacy Practice: A Case Study from Canada Mission Hospital Pharmacy Setting Governance Basel Statements on the Future of Hospital Pharmacy Patient Safety Medication Safety Influence of Hospital Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians on Medication Safety Antimicrobial Stewardship Drug Procurement and Distribution People Procurement Drug Shortages Dispensary and Storage Areas Wardstock Automated Processes and Dispensing Devices Unusable Stock and Disposal of Drugs Access to Pharmacy Preparation Compounding and Repackaging Labeling Safety Checks Procedures Quality Clinical Pharmacy Services Education of Other Health-Care Professionals about Pharmacotherapy Education of Patients about their Medications Education of Pharmacists Entry-to-practice Education Training in Hospital Pharmacy Practice Provision of Expertise Drug Information Formulary Management Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee Conclusion References Further Reading List of Relevant Websites Expanded and Evolving Roles for Pharmacists 1 Scope of Practice and the Pharmacist's Professional Role 2 Enacting Scope Expansion in Pharmacy 3 Barriers to Expanded and Evolving Roles for Pharmacists and Potential Strategies to Overcome These Barriers 3.1 Time, Workflow, and Space 3.2 Education and Confidence 3.3 Support From Other Health Professionals and Patients 3.4 Remuneration/Payment for Services 3.5 Access to, and Sharing of, Medical Records 3.6 Concerns Related to Professional Liability 4 Practice Facilitation and Other Quality Improvement Strategies 5 Evidence Related to Expanded Scope Activities 6 Next Stages in the Evolving Roles for Pharmacists Glossary References Further Reading Professional Pharmacy Services Learning Objectives 1 Introduction 2 Defining Professional Pharmacy Services 2.1 Summary 3 Related Terminology 3.1 Clinical Pharmacy 3.2 Pharmaceutical Care 3.3 Cognitive Services 3.4 Summary 4 Examples of Professional Pharmacy Services 4.1 Patient Education and Counseling (With or Without Medication Dispensing) 4.2 Medication Reconciliation 4.3 Medication Therapy Assessment 4.4 Medication Therapy Monitoring and Follow Up 4.5 Prescribing 4.5.1 Initiation of Medications 4.5.2 Management of Medications 4.5.3 Cessation 4.6 Information Provision 4.7 Detection, Prevention, or Control of Risk Factors 4.7.1 Health Promotion and Preventative Care 4.7.2 Immunization 4.7.3 Screening, Detecting, or Monitoring Disease 4.8 Summary 5 Implementation of Professional Pharmacy Services 5.1 Individual Determinants 5.2 Interpersonal Determinants 5.3 Organizational Determinants 5.4 Health Care System Determinants 5.5 Summary 6 Conclusions References Prescribing: Practices, Standards, Ethics, Behaviors, and Competencies: A Case Study in Alberta Introduction Pharmacy Prescribing Practices Prescribing Autonomy: Independent or Dependent Prescribing Activities The Intersection of Autonomy and Activities Evolution of Prescribing Standards Prescribing Ethics Prescribing Behaviors Stakeholder Perceptions of Pharmacist Prescribing Prescribing Competencies References Professionalism in Pharmacy Practice 1 Introduction 2 Occupation as Profession 3 Pharmacy as a Profession 4 Professionalism as a Construct 5 Patient-Centered Professionalism 6 The Professionalization of Pharmacy Students and Practitioners 7 Why Professionalism Matters 8 Summary References Regulating Pharmacy Professionals Introduction and Scope Why are Pharmacy Professionals Regulated? What Authority Supports the Governance and Regulation of Pharmacy Professionals? Regulatory Cultures Differ How are Pharmacy Regulators Held Accountable? Models of Regulation Roles and Responsibilities of Regulating Bodies The Role of Regulators in Developing Public Policy Case Study-Pharmacy Practice in Alberta, Canada Emerging Considerations in Regulation Summary Glossary References Further Reading Journal Articles Books Website Citations Public Health and Health Promotion in Pharmacy Practice 1 What is Health? 2 Defining Public Health 2.1 Five Waves of Public Health 3 The UN Sustainable Development Goals 3.1 SDG 3-Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All at All Ages 3.2 Eradicating Malaria as an Example 3.3 TB as a Global Public Health Issue 3.4 Ecological Public Health 3.5 Planetary Health 4 What is Health Promotion? 4.1 Heath Education 5 Pharmacy and Health Promotion 5.1 Health Promotion in the National Health Service Contract in England 5.1.1 Prescription-Linked Interventions 5.1.2 Campaign-Based Services 5.1.3 The Components of Pharmacists ́ Health Promotion Activities 5.2 Types of Pharmacy Intervention Adapted From Nice 6 The Evidence Base for Pharmacists ́ Role in Improving the Health of the Public 6.1 Smoking Cessation 6.2 Emergency Hormonal Contraception Supply 6.3 Chlamydia Screening and Treatment Services 6.4 Case Finding Type II Diabetes Screening 6.5 Harm Reduction Services 6.6 Weight Management 6.7 Brief Alcohol Interventions 6.8 Case Finding in Pharmacy 6.9 Pharmacy and Health Inequalities 7 Professional Standards for Pharmacy and Public Health 7.1 Advice and Information 7.2 Communication 7.3 Service Delivery 8 Ethical Health Promotion 8.1 Assessment 8.2 Planning 8.3 Implementation 8.4 Evaluation and Research 8.5 Ethical Values Underpinning the IUHPE Core Competencies and Professional Standards for Health Promotion 9 Core Competencies for Health Promotion 10 Healthy Living Pharmacy 10.1 Level 1 11 An Example of a Health Promoting Pharmacy Further Reading Collaborative and Interprofessional Pharmacy Practice Introduction Collaboration Evidence for collaboration Evidence for CPP/IPP Canada United Kingdom model United States of America Instruments to measure collaboration Conclusion References Interpersonal Communication in Pharmacy Practice Introduction Factors Influencing Interpersonal Communication Pharmacist-Patient Relationship and Communication Other Pharmacist Relationships and Communication Caregivers Pharmacist-Other Health-Care Professionals Relationship Pharmacist-Public Society Relationship at Large Theoretical Foundation for Interpersonal Communication Components of Effective Communication Communication Techniques Factors Associated With Ineffective Communication Patient-Level Barriers to Effective Patient-Pharmacist Communication Pharmacist-Level Barriers to Effective Patient-Pharmacist Communication Patient Scenarios With Suggested Communication Strategies Conclusion References Further Reading Evidence-Based Medicine: An Overview for Pharmacists What is Drug Information (DI)? Definition Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Literature Responding to a DI Request What is Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM)? Origins and Definition How do Pharmacists Practice EBM? Levels of Evidence and Study Designs Levels of Evidence EBM Step 1: Constructing an Answerable Question Background/Foreground Questions and PICO EBM Step 2: Choosing Your Sources and Performing the Literature Search Identifying Search Terms and Using AND/OR/NOT PubMed (MEDLINE) Tips to Consider Clinical Queries Other Databases Clinical Practice Guidelines Gray Literature EBM Step 3: Critical Appraisal of the Results Outline placeholder Systematic Reviews/Meta-Analyses Randomized Controlled Trials Describing Study Results Measures of Central Tendency and Precision Describing Results in Relation to a Comparison Group Checklists EBM Steps 4 and 5: Applying the Evidence to Your Patient and Evaluating Your Results Acknowledgment References Further Reading Patient Counseling and Education: Models and Methods in Pharmacy Practice Objectives 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Models of Patient Education 2.1 Health Belief Model 2.2 Transtheoretical Model of Behavioral Change 2.3 Locus of Control 2.4 Adult Learning Theory-Andragogy 2.5 Self-Efficacy Model 3 International Perspectives 4 Models and Methods of Patient Education in Special Populations 4.1 Patient Education for Pregnancy and Lactation 4.2 Pediatrics 4.3 Mental Health 5 Conclusions References Technology and Social Media Applications in Pharmacy Practice Introduction Overview of Social Media Uptake of Social Media Common Features of Social Networking Sites Creating Social Media Content Social Media in Health Care Social Media in Pharmacy e-Professionalism and Social Media Pharmacy Communities Online Social Media in Pharmacy Education Teaching Pharmacy Students to Use Social Media The Safety of Social Media Conclusion Glossary References Further Reading Relevant Websites Pediatric Pharmacy Practice Responsibilities of All Pharmacists Working Within a System That Cares for Pediatric Patients Roles of the Pharmacist Caring for Pediatric Patients Age Terminology and Definitions Fundamentals of Pediatric Pharmaceutical Calculations Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Pharmacogenomics Pediatric Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics Therapeutic Drug Monitoring Pharmacogenomics Pediatric Dosage Forms Drug Properties Enteral Tube Administration Short Bowel Syndrome Ketogenic Diet Hazardous Medications Patient Education Drug Information Medication Safety Medication Reconciliation Expanded Scope of Practice References Use of Complementary/Alternative Medicines in Pharmacy Practice 1 What is Complementary and Alternative Medicine? 1.1 Defining CAM 2 The Regulation of CAM Practices and Products 2.1 Regulation of CAM Practitioners 2.2 Regulation of CAM Products 3 Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use 3.1 Prevalence of CAM Use 3.2 Reasons for CAM Use 4 Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Pharmacy Practice 4.1 Sale and Marketing of NHPs in Pharmacies 4.2 Role of the Pharmacist in CAM 4.3 Integrative Medicine Approaches 5 Safety of Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5.1 Safety of CAM Procedures 5.2 Safety of Natural Health Products 6 Monitoring and Reporting Adverse Events Involving Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6.1 Adverse Event Reporting for CAM Practices and Procedures 6.2 Adverse Event Reporting for CAM Products 7 Finding and Interpreting Evidence Surrounding Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7.1 Evidence-Based Medicine and CAM 7.2 Resources for Locating Evidence on CAM Practices and Procedures 7.3 Resources for Locating Evidence on CAM Products 8 Communicating with Patients about Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use 9 Conclusion References Prevention and Management of Substance Misuse and Addiction in Pharmacy Practice Introduction Opioids Sedative-Hypnotics Alcohol Smoking Cessation Harm Reduction Conclusion References Further Reading Self-Care/Over-the-Counter Drugs/Minor Ailments in Pharmacy Practice 1 Introduction 2 Self-Care 2.1 The History and Evolving Definition 2.2 The Seven Pillars of Self-Care 3 Minor Ailments 4 Understanding Today's Self-Care Landscape 4.1 Self-Medication 4.2 Facilitated Self-Medication 4.3 Self-Care Market 4.3.1 Impetus for Continued Growth 4.4 The Benefits of Self-Care and Self-Medication 5 The Pharmacist's Role in Self-Care and Minor Ailments 5.1 Managing Minor Ailments in the Community 5.2 Facilitating Safe and Appropriate Self-Care and Self-Medication 6 Pharmacists ́ Patient Care Process in Self-Care 6.1 PPCP: The Core 6.2 PPCP: The Five Steps 6.2.1 Collect 6.2.2 Assess 6.2.2.1 Medication assessment 6.2.2.2 Patient history and risk assessment 6.2.2.3 Preventive care assessment 6.2.2.4 Appropriateness for self-treatment assessment 6.2.3 Plan 6.2.3.1 Medication-related problems 6.2.3.2 Goals of therapy 6.2.3.3 Patient engagement 6.2.3.4 Care continuity 6.2.4 Implement 6.2.5 Follow-Up: Monitor and Evaluate 6.3 Tools and Mnemonics for PPCP Efficiency 7 Developing Cultural Competency for Self-Care 7.1 Rationale for Improving Cultural Competency in Healthcare 7.2 Important Considerations for Working Across Cultures 7.2.1 Beliefs of Different Population Groups 7.2.2 Communication 7.3 Providing Culturally Competent Care 7.3.1 Recognizing Personal Beliefs and Biases 7.3.2 Strategies for Gathering and Assessing Patient Information 7.3.3 Developing and Articulating a Self-Care Plan 8 Regulatory and Legal Considerations 8.1 Regulatory Considerations for Nonprescription Drugs 8.2 Approval of Nonprescription Drugs 8.2.1 A Note on Prescription-to-Nonprescription Switches 8.3 Ensuring Nonprescription Drug Safety 8.3.1 Labeling, Packaging, and Advertising 8.3.2 Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting 8.3.3 Safety Concerns Related to Nonprescription Drugs 8.3.3.1 Substandard and falsified products 8.3.3.2 Abuse of nonprescription medications 8.4 Legal Considerations for Nonprescription Drugs 9 Pharmacist-Led Minor Ailment Services (PMAS) 10 The Future Glossary List of Relevant Web Pages References Extemporaneous Compounding in Pharmacy Practice Introduction Compounding in Community Pharmacy Nonsterile Compounding Overcoming Errors in Compounding Pharmacy Nonsterile Basic Pharmacy Physical Layout General Layout Lighting Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning System Water Supply Work Surfaces Furniture, Walls, and Flooring Basic Equipment Introduction to Common Extemporaneous Formulation Types Liquids Suspensions Emulsions Ointments Preparation by Fusion Preparation by Mechanical Incorporation Levigation Geometric Dilution Ointment Jar/Container Selec