Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Second Edition, Volume 1-6 1-6

Cover Page 1 Subject Area Volumes from the Second Edition 4 Title page 5 ISBN 9780123750440 6 Editors 7 Editorial Advisory Board 8 Preface to Second Print Edition 11 Preface to First Edition 11 In Memoriam 12 Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia 13 Introductory Points 13 Structure of the Encyclopedia 13 1. Contents Lists 13 2. Cross References 13 3. Index 14 4. Appendices 14 5. Contributors 14 Contributors 15 Volume 1 15 Volume 2 18 Volume 3 20 Volume 4 23 Volume 5 26 Volume 6 29 Contents 31 Volume 1 31 Volume 2 33 Volume 3 35 Volume 4 38 Volume 5 41 Volume 6 43 ABRUPT CLIMATE CHANGE 45 Introduction 45 Paleoclimatic Data 45 Mechanisms of Abrupt Climate Change 47 Risk of Future Abrupt Changes 49 See also 50 Further Reading 50 ABSORBANCE SPECTROSCOPY FOR CHEMICAL SENSORS 51 Introduction 51 Absorbance and Reflectance Spectroscopy 51 Optical Fibers 52 Optoelectronic Instrumentation 53 Molecular Recognition Element 54 Sensor Design 55 Sensor Applications 57 Conclusions 57 See also 58 Further Reading 58 ABYSSAL CURRENTS 59 Introduction 59 The Stommel-Arons Concept and Diffusivity in the Interior 60 Sources of Abyssal Waters 62 Deep Western Boundary Currents (DWBC) 70 Conclusions 73 See also 74 Further Reading 74 ACCRETIONARY PRISMS 75 Introduction 75 Origin and Variation of Materials Incorporated in Accretionary Prisms 75 Solid Material Transfer in Accretionary Prisms 76 Fluids In and Out of Accretionary Prisms 78 Seismogenesis and Accretionary Prisms 78 Mechanics 79 Non-accretionary Convergent Plate Boundaries 79 Conclusions 80 Acknowledgments 81 See also 81 Further Reading 81 ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENT OF NEAR-BED SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES 82 Introduction: Sediments and Why Sound Is Used 82 Some Historical Background 83 What Can Be Measured? 84 A Case Study of Waves over a Rippled Bed 88 Discussion and Conclusions 92 See also 95 Further Reading 95 Relevant Websites 95 ACOUSTIC NOISE 96 Introduction 96 ULF Band: Wave–Wave Interaction Noise 96 VLF Band: Atmospheric Turbulence Forcing as a Noise Source 98 LF Band: Distant Shipping Noise 99 MF Band: Wind-driven Sea Surface Noise 101 HF Band: Molecular Noise 104 See also 104 Further Reading 104 ACOUSTIC SCATTERING BY MARINE ORGANISMS 106 Historical Overview 106 Physical Basis for Scattering 106 Classification of Marine Organisms as Scatterers 107 Dependences of Scattering 107 Quantification of Scattering 107 Fish as Scatterers 109 Zooplankton as Scatterers 111 Other Organisms as Scatterers 112 Challenges 113 Acknowledgments 114 See also 114 Further Reading 114 ACOUSTIC SCINTILLATION THERMOGRAPHY 115 Introduction: Mapping Diffuse Flow at Seafloor Hydrothermal Sites 115 Method 115 Application 116 See also 118 Further Reading 118 ACOUSTICS IN MARINE SEDIMENTS 119 Introduction 119 Biot–Stoll Model 120 Seismo-acoustic Waves in the Vicinity of the Water–Sediment Interface 122 Seafloor Roughness 124 Techniques to Measure Geoacoustic Parameters of Marine Sediments 124 Conclusions 134 See also 135 Further Reading 135 ACOUSTICS, ARCTIC 136 Introduction 136 History 136 Arctic Ocean Sound Speed Structure 138 Propagation 139 Ambient Noise 142 Conclusions 143 See also 143 Further Reading 144 ACOUSTICS, DEEP OCEAN 145 Introduction 145 Ocean Acoustic Environment 145 Units 145 Sound Propagation 146 Scattering and Reverberation 149 Ambient Noise 151 Sonar Equation 153 See also 154 Further Reading 154 ACOUSTICS, SHALLOW WATER 156 Introduction 156 The Ocean Acoustic Environment 156 Transmission Loss 157 Transmission-loss Data 160 Signal Transmission in the Time Domain 162 Numerical Modeling 163 Conclusions 163 See also 163 Further Reading 163 AEOLIAN INPUTS 164 Introduction 164 Land–sea Exchange of Individual Components 164 Conclusions 170 See also 170 Further Reading 170 AGULHAS CURRENT 172 Introduction 172 Importance 172 Large-scale Circulation 172 Sources of the Agulhas Current 174 Northern Agulhas Current 175 Southern Agulhas Current 177 The Agulhas Retroflection 178 Agulhas Return Current 179 Conclusion 181 See also 181 Further Reading 181 AIRCRAFT REMOTE SENSING 182 Introduction 182 Active Systems 183 Passive Systems 185 Hyper-spectral Systems 186 Radar Altimetry 188 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 188 Microwave Salinometers 189 See also 190 Further Reading 190 AIR–SEA GAS EXCHANGE 191 Introduction 191 Theory 191 Experimental Techniques and Results 197 Outlook 200 Nomenclature 200 See also 200 Further Reading 200 Relevant Websites 200 AIR–SEA TRANSFER: DIMETHYL SULFIDE, COS, CS2, NH4, NON-METHANE HYDROCARBONS, ORGANO-HALOGENS 201 Dimethylsulfide 202 Carbonyl Sulfide 203 Carbon Disulfide 203 Nonmethane Hydrocarbons 204 Ammonia 204 Organohalogens 205 Conclusions 206 See also 206 Further Reading 206 AIR–SEA TRANSFER: N2O, NO, CH4, CO 207 Introduction 207 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 207 Nitric Oxide (NO) 209 Methane (CH4) 210 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 211 Air–Sea Exchange of Trace Gases 213 See also 214 Further Reading 214 ALCIDAE 215 Introduction 215 Evolution and Systematics 215 Characteristics and Adaptations 215 Diet and Foraging Ecology 218 Reproduction 218 Postbreeding and Wintering 219 Population Dynamics 219 Auks and People 219 See also 221 Further Reading 221 ANTARCTIC CIRCUMPOLAR CURRENT 222 Introduction 222 Structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current 222 Circulation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current 227 Transport of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current 228 Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current 229 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Overturning Circulation 232 Summary 233 See also 234 Further Reading 234 Relevant Website 234 ANTARCTIC FISHES 235 Introduction 235 Fish Fauna 235 Adaptations 235 See also 238 Further Reading 238 ANTHROPOGENIC TRACE ELEMENTS IN THE OCEAN 239 Introduction 239 Anthropogenic Lead in the Ocean 239 Anthropogenic Mercury in the Ocean 242 Other Anthropogenic Elements in the Ocean 244 Anthropogenic Trace Metal Enhancements in Coastal Waters and Embayments 244 Conclusions 244 See also 245 Further Reading 245 ANTIFOULING MATERIALS 247 Introduction 247 Historical Development 247 The Downside of TBT-Based Antifoulants: Their Regulation and Eventual Ban 249 Meeting the Challenge: Alternative Antifoulants 250 See also 254 Further Reading 254 ARCTIC OCEAN CIRCULATION 255 Introduction 255 Circulation 255 Processes 262 Variability 265 Transports 267 Significance for Climate 268 See also 268 Further Reading 268 ARTIFICIAL REEFS 270 Introduction 270 Utilization of Reefs in the World’s Oceans 270 Progress toward Scientific Understanding 272 Advances in Planning, Design, and Construction 274 Integration of Reefs in Ecological and Human Systems 276 See also 276 Further Reading 277 ATLANTIC OCEAN EQUATORIAL CURRENTS 278 Introduction 278 Time-averaged Currents 278 Seasonal Variations of the Currents 279 Interannual Variations 280 Stability of the Currents 281 See also 281 Further Reading 281 ATMOSPHERIC INPUT OF POLLUTANTS 282 Introduction 282 Estimating Atmospheric Contaminant Deposition 282 Atmospheric Deposition to Estuaries and the Coastal Ocean 283 Atmospheric Deposition to the Open Ocean 286 Conclusions 290 See also 291 Further Reading 291 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF PARTICULATE MATERIAL TO THE OCEANS 292 Introduction 292 Aerosol Sources, Composition, and Concentrations 292 Aerosol Removal Mechanisms 294 Deposition of Aerosols to the Oceans 296 Conclusions 301 See also 301 Further Reading 301 AUTHIGENIC DEPOSITS 302 Introduction 302 Ferromanganese Deposits 302 Phosphorites 307 Marine Barite and Authigenic Silicates 308 Glossary 312 See also 312 Further Reading 312 BACTERIOPLANKTON 313 Introduction 313 Identity and Taxonomy 313 Nutrition and Physiology 315 Bacterial Biomass, Growth, and Production 316 Role in Food Webs and Biogeochemical Cycles 318 Conclusions 319 See also 319 Further Reading 319 BALEEN WHALES 320 Diagnostic Characters and Taxonomy 320 Distribution and Ecology 322 Life History 326 Population Status 328 Glossary 331 See also 331 Further Reading 331 BALTIC SEA CIRCULATION 332 Introduction 332 The Estuarine Circulation 333 Wind-driven and Thermohaline Circulation 336 Currents in the Danish Straits and Major Inflow Events 338 Oscillatory Currents 340 See also 340 Further Reading 340 BATHYMETRY 341 Introduction 341 Uses of Bathymetry 341 What Bathymetry Is and Is Not 342 Bathymetry of a Small Area 342 Scale and Resolution 343 Making a Bathymetry Map of a Large Area 344 Assembly, Interpretation, Distribution, and Updating 346 See also 347 Further Reading 347 Relevant Websites 347 BEACHES, PHYSICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING 349 Introduction 349 Beaches 349 Wave-dominated Beaches 349 Tide-modified Beaches 355 Tide-dominated Beach 357 Beach Modification 357 See also 359 Further Reading 359 BENGUELA CURRENT 360 Introduction 360 Winds 360 Upwelling 362 Water Masses and Large-scale Circulation 363 Shelf Circulation 368 System Boundaries, Fronts, and Filaments 368 System Variability 370 Concluding Remarks 371 See also 371 Further Reading 371 BENTHIC BOUNDARY LAYER EFFECTS 372 Introduction 372 Organisms of the Benthic Boundary Layer 372 Benthic Boundary Layer Flow Adaptations 374 Life History Adaptations 374 Suspension-feeding Adaptations 375 Adaptations to Resist Shear Stress 376 Aggregation as an Adaptation 377 Conclusions 378 See also 378 Further Reading 379 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA 380 Introduction 380 History of Study 380 Morphological and Taxonomic Diversity 380 Methodology 381 Ecology 383 Deep-Sea Foraminifera in Paleo-Oceanography 389 Conclusions 391 See also 391 Further Reading 391 BENTHIC ORGANISMS OVERVIEW 392 Introduction 392 Physical Conditions Affecting the Benthos 392 Classification of the Benthos 393 Feeding Habits of Benthic Animals 395 Spatial Distribution of Benthos 396 Reproduction in Benthic Animals 397 Deep-sea Benthos 398 Glossary 399 See also 400 Further Reading 400 BIOACOUSTICS 401 Introduction 401 Elementary Acoustics 401 Relating Acoustic Structure to Biological Function of Marine Mammal Calls 402 Marine Mammal Hearing 403 Vocalizations of Marine Mammals 404 Mechanisms of Sound Production 405 Methods for Bioacoustic Research 406 See also 407 Further Reading 407 BIOGEOCHEMICAL DATA ASSIMILATION 408 Introduction 408 Biogeochemical Models and Data Availability 408 Data Assimilation Methods 409 Numerical Twin Experiments 410 Summary 413 See also 413 Further Reading 413 BIOLOGICAL PUMP AND PARTICLE FLUXES 415 See also 418 Further Reading 418 BIOLUMINESCENCE 420 Introduction 420 Biochemistry 420 Microorganisms 420 Plankton 420 Squid and Octopods 424 Fishes 424 Measurements of Bioluminescence 426 Bioluminescent Phenomena 427 Applications of Bioluminescence 427 See also 428 Further Reading 428 BIO-OPTICAL MODELS 429 Introduction 429 Optical Models for Individual Particle or Population of Particles 430 Modeling the Optical Properties of Ocean Waters in Relation to Their Biological State 432 Conclusions 437 See also 438 Further Reading 438 BIOTURBATION 439 Introduction 439 Particle Bioturbation 439 Pore-Water Bioirrigation 442 Bioturbation and the Ecology and Evolution of Benthic Communities 444 See also 444 Further Reading 444 BLACK SEA CIRCULATION 445 Introduction 445 Water Budget 446 Meteorological Forcing 447 Water Mass Structure 448 Basin-Scale Circulation 448 Mesoscale Dynamics 451 Temporal Variability 454 Coherent Structures and Overturning Circulation 456 See also 457 Further Reading 457 Relevant Websites 458 BOTTOM WATER FORMATION 459 Introduction 459 Formation of Antarctic Bottom Water 460 Formation Rate of Antarctic Bottom Water 462 Deep Convection Within the Southern Ocean 464 Conclusion 464 Summary 464 See also 465 Further Reading 465 BRAZIL AND FALKLANDS (MALVINAS) CURRENTS 466 Introduction 466 Water Masses 466 Circulation 469 Acknowledgments 474 See also 474 Further Reading 474 BREAKING WAVES AND NEAR-SURFACE TURBULENCE 475 Introduction 475 Breaking Waves 475 Turbulence beneath Breaking Waves 477 Conclusion 480 Nomenclature 481 See also 481 Further Reading 481 BUBBLES 483 Introduction 483 Sources of Bubbles 483 Dispersion and Development 484 Surfacing and Bursting 486 Acoustical and Optical Properties 487 Summary of Bubble Distribution 487 See also 488 Further Reading 488 CALCIUM CARBONATES 489 Introduction 489 Carbonate Producers 489 Carbonate Distribution and Dissolution 490 Basin-to-Basin Fractionation in the Modern Ocean 494 Temporal Changes in Carbonate Accumulation and Preservation 495 Seaflor Diagenesis 496 See also 497 Further Reading 497 CALIFORNIA AND ALASKA CURRENTS 499 Introduction 499 The Alaska Current System 499 The California Current System 503 Topographic Effects in the Alaska/California Current Systems 507 Interannual and Interdecadal Variability in the Alaska/California Current Systems 508 See also 509 Further Reading 509 CANARY AND PORTUGAL CURRENTS 511 Introduction 511 Large-scale Circulation 511 Coastal Upwelling 513 Poleward Undercurrent 516 Spatial Variability 518 Numerical Models 518 Conclusions 520 See also 520 Further Reading 520 CARBON CYCLE 521 Introduction 521 Global Carbon Cycle 521 Oceanic Carbon Cycle 522 Solubility and Exchange of CO 523 between the Ocean and Atmosphere 523 The Biological Pump 525 Summary 530 See also 530 Further Reading 530 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) CYCLE 531 Introduction 531 History 532 Methods 532 CO2 Sink/Source Areas of the Global Ocean 533 Net CO2 Flux Across the Sea Surface 535 See also 537 Further Reading 538 CARBON SEQUESTRATION VIA DIRECT INJECTION INTO THE OCEAN 539 Introduction 539 Capacity 540 Effectiveness 541 Injection Methods 542 Local Environmental Impacts and Public Perception 544 See also 544 Further Reading 544 CENOZOIC CLIMATE – OXYGEN ISOTOPE EVIDENCE 546 Oxygen Isotope Systematics 546 Oxygen Isotope Paleothermometry 546 δ 18 O Variation in the Natural Environment 547 Spatial Variations in δ 18 O(water) of Modern Sea Water 548 Temporal Variations 549 Pleistocene Oxygen Isotope Variations 549 Cenozoic δ 18 O Records 550 The Greenhouse World 553 The Ice House World of the Last 33 Million Years 553 Mechanisms for Climate Change 555 Some Caveats 556 See also 556 Further Reading 556 CENOZOIC OCEANS – CARBON CYCLE MODELS 558 Introduction 558 Indicators of Atmospheric CO2 Change 558 Carbon Cycle Changes and Processes Involved 559 Modelling: An Attempt to Integrate the Records into a Unified Framework 563 Conclusions 566 See also 566 Further Reading 566 CEPHALOPODS 568 Introduction 568 Diagnosis of the Cephalopoda (Table 1) 568 Biology 568 The Life Cycle 571 Ecology 572 Conclusions 573 See also 573 Further Reading 573 CFCS IN THE OCEAN 575 Introduction 575 Atmospheric Source 575 CFCs in the Oceans 576 CFC Ages in the Ocean 577 Applications of CFCs to Ocean Processes 580 Conclusions 582 See also 582 Further Reading 582 CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS 583 Introduction 583 Oxidation/Reduction Reactions 584 Authigenic Mineral Formation 587 Elemental Cycling within Estuarine and Coastal Sediments 590 The Effect of Sedimentary Redox Cycling on Nutrient Cycles 591 Contaminant Cycling: Anthropogenic Metals 593 See also 593 Further Reading 594 CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS 595 Introduction 595 History 597 Distribution in the Marine Environment 597 Conclusions 606 See also 606 Further Reading 606 CLAY MINERALOGY 607 Introduction 607 General Distribution and Significance 607 Marine Autochthonous Processes 609 Paleoenvironmental Expression 613 See also 615 Further Reading 615 COASTAL CIRCULATION MODELS 616 Introduction 616 Governing Equations and State Variables 616 Applications 619 Conclusions and Future Directions 622 See also 623 Further Reading 623 COASTAL TOPOGRAPHY, HUMAN IMPACT ON 625 Introduction 625 The Scope of Human Impact on the Coast 625 The Scope of Coastal Engineering Impacts 629 Human Impact on Sand Supply 631 Conclusion 633 See also 633 Further Reading 633 COASTAL TRAPPED WAVES 635 Introduction 635 Formulation 635 Straight Unstratified Shelf 635 Other Geometry 636 Stratification 637 Friction 638 Mean Flows 639 Non-linear Effects 639 Alongshore Variations 640 Generation and Role of Coastaltrapped Waves 640 Summary 641 See also 642 Further Reading 642 COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 643 Introduction 643 Evolution of Coastal Zone Management 643 Future Directions 647 See also 648 Further Reading 648 Relevant Websites 649 COCCOLITHOPHORES 650 Introduction 650 Species and Distribution 651 Coccoliths 653 Life Cycle 653 Calcifcation 654 Ecological Niche 654 Biogeochemical Impacts 655 The Past 656 The Future 657 See also 657 Further Reading 657 Relevant Websites 658 COLD-WATER CORAL REEFS 659 Introduction and Historical Background 659 Cold-Water Corals 659 Reef Distribution and Development 660 Feeding, Growth, and Reproduction 662 Hidden Diversity and Molecular Genetics 663 Habitats and Biodiversity 664 Timescales and Archives 666 Threats 666 Conclusions 668 See also 669 Further Reading 669 Relevant Website 669 CONSERVATIVE ELEMENTS 670 Introduction 670 Determinations 670 Plankton Production 670 River Inputs 671 Hot Vents 672 Marine Aerosols 672 Minor Constituents 672 Conclusions 672 See also 672 Further Reading 672 CONTINUOUS PLANKTON RECORDERS 674 Introduction 674 History 674 Methods 676 Results and Applications of the Data 677 Summary and the Future 683 See also 683 Further Reading 683 COPEPODS 684 Introduction 684 Taxonomy 684 Morphology 684 Distribution and Habitats 686 Feeding 689 Growth and Development 689 Metabolism 690 Reproduction 691 Behavior 691 Life Histories 692 Copepods as Pests 693 Biogeochemical Role 694 Role in the Ecosystem 694 See also 694 Further Reading 694 CORAL REEF AND OTHER TROPICAL FISHERIES 695 Introduction 695 Coral Reef and Tropical Fisheries 695 Marine Protected Areas are Part of the Solution 697 See also 698 Further Reading 698 CORAL REEF FISHES 699 Introduction: Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation 699 Fisheries 699 Morphology 699 Behavior 700 Reproduction 701 Ecology 702 See also 703 Further Reading 703 CORAL REEFS 704 Introduction 704 General 704 Geology 709 Biology 711 Coral Reef Management 713 See Also 714 Further Reading 714 CORALS AND HUMAN DISTURBANCE 715 Introduction 715 Collection of Corals 715 Destructive Fishing 716 Discharges 717 Solid Waste Dumping 719 Construction 719 Recreation 719 Shipping and Port Activities 719 War-related Activities 720 Indirect Effects 720 The Future 721 Glossary 721 See also 721 Further Reading 721 COSMOGENIC ISOTOPES 722 Introduction 722 Terrestrial Cosmogenic Isotopes and their Production Rates 722 Pathways of Isotopes to the Oceans and their Approximate Inventories/ Concentrations in the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Sediments 725 Tracers in Oceanography: Why We Need Them and What We Learn From Them 726 New Techniques for Measurements of Tracers in the Oceans in the 1980s and 1990s 728 Examples of Oceanic Data Derived Using Cosmogenic Tracers 728 Epilogue 729 See also 731 Further Reading 731 COUPLED SEA ICE–OCEAN MODELS 732 Introduction 732 Basics 733 Subgridscale Parameterizations 733 Thermodynamics 734 Dynamics 735 Coupling 737 Numerical Aspects 738 Model Evaluation 738 Conclusions 740 See also 740 Glossary 740 Further Reading 741 CRUSTACEAN FISHERIES 743 Introduction 743 Biology and Life History 743 Marine Shrimps and Prawns 744 Crabs 745 Lobsters and Crayfish 746 Fishery Assessment Research 746 Crustacean Management Techniques 749 Conclusions 750 See also 751 Further Reading 751 CTD (CONDUCTIVITY, TEMPERATURE, DEPTH) PROFILER 752 Introduction: The In Situ Measurement of Salinity, Temperature, and Density in the Ocean 752 Temperature 752 Salinity 755 CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) Sensors 757 Pressure 757 Conductivity 758 Extended Deployments of the CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) 760 See also 760 Further Reading 760 Relevant Websites 761 CURRENT SYSTEMS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN 762 Introduction 762 Basin Structure 762 Historical Developments 764 Currents of the Atlantic Ocean Warmwatersphere 764 Currents of the Deep Atlantic Ocean 768 Future Aspects 770 See also 770 Further Reading 771 CURRENT SYSTEMS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN 772 Introduction 772 Characteristics of the Indian Ocean Basin 772 The Overlying Atmosphere 772 The Currents in the Southern Part of the Indian Ocean 774 Response of the Indian Ocean Circulation to the Wind Variability in the Northern Part 775 See also 778 Further Reading 778 CURRENT SYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 779 Summary 779 Introduction 780 Antarctic Circumpolar Current 782 Weddell Gyre 784 See also 786 Further Reading 786 CURRENT SYSTEMS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 788 Introduction 788 Morphology and Climatology 788 The Western Mediterranean 790 The Eastern Mediterranean 792 See also 795 Further Reading 795 DATA ASSIMILATION IN MODELS 796 Introduction 796 Field and Parameter Estimation 796 Goals and Purposes 798 Regional Forecasting and Dynamics 798 Concepts and Methods 800 Examples 803 Conclusions 806 Acknowledgments 806 See also 806 Further Reading 806 DEEP CONVECTION 808 Introduction 808 Plumes – the Mixing Agent 810 Temperature and Salinity Variability 811 Restratification 812 Discussion 814 See also 816 Further Reading 816 DEEP SUBMERGENCE, SCIENCE OF 817 Introduction 817 Enabling Deep Submergence Technologies 817 Deep Submergence Science Topics 819 Conclusions 829 See also 831 Further Reading 831 DEEP-SEA DRILLING METHODOLOGY 832 Introduction 832 Drilling Technology 832 Deep-Sea Sampling 835 Drilling Measurements 836 Deep Seafloo Observatories 839 Summary 839 See also 839 Further Reading 839 DEEP-SEA DRILLING RESULTS 840 Introduction 840 Science Initiatives 841 Dynamics of the Earth’s Environment 842 Technological Advances 845 Sea oor Equipment 846 Laboratory Equipment 846 Facilities 846 Scientific Expeditions 847 International Partnership 847 Management Structure 847 Advisory Structure 848 Future Directions 848 See also 849 Further Reading 849 DEEP-SEA FAUNA 850 Overview 850 Defining the Habitats 850 Seamounts 852 Hydrothermal Vents 852 Defining the Organisms 853 Sampling the Fauna 854 Patterns of Diversity 856 How Many Species Are There? 857 Low Diversity Environments 858 Theories 859 Threats and Benefit 859 See also 860 Further Reading 861 DEEP-SEA FISHES 862 Introduction 862 Depth-related Changes in Abundance and Biomass 862 The Diet of Deep-water Demersal Fishes 865 Sensory Systems 865 Buoyancy 866 Longevity 866 Reproduction 866 Life Histories 867 See also 867 Further Reading 867 DEEP-SEA RIDGES, MICROBIOLOGY 868 Introduction 868 Geological Setting 868 Microbial Habitats 868 Microbial Diversity at Deep-sea Vents 870 Subsurface Biosphere 873 Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents and the Origins of Life 873 Conclusion 874 See also 874 Further Reading 874 DEEP-SEA SEDIMENT DRIFTS 875 Introduction 875 Bottom Currents 875 Contourite Drifts 876 Contourite Sediment Facies 880 Contourite Sequences and Current Velocity 883 See also 884 Further Reading 884 DEMERSAL SPECIES FISHERIES 885 Introduction 885 Principal Species Caught in Demersal Fisheries 886 Fishing Gears and Fishing Operations 887 Effects of Demersal Fisheries on the Species They Exploit 887 Effects of the Environment on Demersal Fisheries 888 World Catches from Demersal Fisheries and the Limits 889 Management of Demersal Fisheries 889 Demersal Fisheries by Region 891 Conclusions 892 See also 892 Further Reading 892 DETERMINATION OF PAST SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURES 893 Introduction 893 Characteristics of Sea Surface Temperature 893 Methods for Determination of Past Sea Surface Temperatures 895 Conclusion 907 See also 907 Further Reading 907 Relevant Website 908 DIFFERENTIAL DIFFUSION 909 Introduction 909 What Is Differential Diffusion? 909 Laboratory Evidence for Differential Diffusion 910 Numerical Simulation of Differential Diffusion 910 Oceanic Values of Diffusivity Ratio 912 Other Observational Evidence for Differential Diffusion? 913 Does Differential Diffusion Matter? 914 See also 916 Further Reading 916 DISPERSION AND DIFFUSION IN THE DEEP OCEAN 917 Introduction 917 The Thermohaline Circulation 917 Deep-sea Observations of Mixing 917 Summary 923 See also 924 Further Reading 924 DISPERSION FROM HYDROTHERMAL VENTS 925 Introduction 925 The Rising Plume 925 Mesoscale Flow and Vortices 927 Large-scale flow 929 Discussion 931 Nomenclature 932 See also 933 Further Reading 933 DIVERSITY OF MARINE SPECIES 934 Overview 934 The Organisms 935 Sampling Biodiversity 935 Coastal Environments 936 The Open Ocean 937 Regulation of Pattern and Linkages Between Organisms and Habitats 939 Estimates of Total Species Numbers 939 Threats 940 The Importance of Marine Biodiversity 942 Concluding Remarks 942 See also 943 Further Reading 943 DOLPHINS AND PORPOISES 944 Introduction: Physical Descriptions and Systematics 944 Evolution 950 Life History 950 Distribution, Ranging Patterns, and Habitat Use 951 Feeding Ecology 952 Sensory Systems and Communication 952 Behavior and Social Organization 953 Conservation Status and Concerns 954 Glossary 955 See also 955 Further Reading 956 DOUBLE-DIFFUSIVE CONVECTION 957 Introduction 957 Salt Fingers 957 Diffusive Convection 961 Intrusions 963 Global Importance 963 See also 965 Further Reading 965 DRIFTERS AND FLOATS 966 Introduction 966 Surface Drifters 966 Subsurface Floats 969 See also 973 Further Reading 973 Relevant Websites 973 DYNAMICS OF EXPLOITED MARINE FISH POPULATIONS 974 Introduction 974 Production of Marine Populations 974 Assessing Population Status 975 Management Targets and Limits to Exploitation 977 Shifting Environmental States 978 Uncertainty, Risk, and the Precautionary Approach 979 Summary 980 See also 980 Further Reading 980 EAST AUSTRALIAN CURRENT 982 The East Australian Current 982 Eddies 986 Effects on the Continental Shelf 989 Summary 990 Glossary 990 See also 991 Further Reading 991 ECONOMICS OF SEA LEVEL RISE 992 Introduction 992 What Are the Costs of Sea Level Rise? 992 What Are the Costs of Adaptation to Sea Level Rise? 993 How Would and Should Societies Adapt to Sea Level Rise? 994 Conclusion 994 See also 995 Further Reading 995 ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF FISHING 996 Introduction 996 By-catch and Discards 997 The Effects of Trawling and Dredging on the Seabed 999 Species Interactions 1000 Conclusion 1002 See also 1002 Further Reading 1002 EELS 1003 Introduction 1003 Taxonomic and Geographic Diversity of Anguilla 1003 Life Cycle 1003 Migrations in the Ocean 1007 Genetics and Panmixia 1009 Evolution and Paleoceanography 1010 Fisheries and Aquaculture 1010 Status of Eel Populations 1010 See also 1011 Glossary 1011 Further Reading 1012 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE MAMMALS 1013 Introduction 1013 Responses to Normal Environmental Variation 1013 Classifying Effects 1014 Evidence for the Effects of Climate Change on Marine Mammals 1014 Is Climate Change Research on Marine Mammals Scientific? 1014 Identifying Situations in Which Climate Change is Likely to Have a Negative Effect on Marine Mammals: Future Work 1015 See also 1015 Further Reading 1015 EKMAN TRANSPORT AND PUMPING 1017 Introduction 1017 Ekman’s Theory of the Wind-driven Currents 1017 Ekman Transport and Pumping 1019 Coastal Upwelling 1021 Summary 1021 See also 1022 Further Reading 1022 EL NIÑO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO) 1023 Introduction 1023 The Tropical Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere System 1025 Mechanisms of ENSO 1030 Interannual Variations in Climate 1030 Impacts 1033 ENSO and Seasonal Predictions 1034 See also 1034 Further Reading 1035 EL NIÑO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO) MODELS 1036 Introduction 1036 The Atmosphere 1037 The Oceans 1037 Interactions between the Ocean and Atmosphere 1039 Conclusions 1040 See also 1040 Further Reading 1041 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SEA WATER 1042 Introduction 1042 Electrical Conductivity 1042 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation 1046 Galvanic Couples 1047 Velocity Measurement 1048 Symbols used 1048 See also 1049 Further Reading 1049 ELEMENTAL DISTRIBUTION: OVERVIEW 1050 Introduction 1050 Historical Review 1050 Technical Challenge 1050 Oceanic Profils 1053 Particle Association and Speciation 1053 Summary 1055 See also 1055 Further Reading 1055 ENERGETICS OF OCEAN MIXING 1056 Introduction 1056 The Global Ocean’s Energy Budget 1057 The Traditional Paradigm of Ocean Mixing: The Abyssal Ocean 1058 An Alternative Paradigm of Ocean Mixing: The Permanent Pycnocline 1062 Conclusion 1064 Nomenclature 1064 See also 1065 Further Reading 1065 EQUATORIAL WAVES 1066 Introduction 1066 The Shallow-Water Equations 1068 Free-Wave Solutions of the Shallow-Water Equations 1069 Ocean Response to Brief Wind Perturbations 1071 Ocean Response to Slowly Varying Winds 1074 Conceptual Models of ENSO Based on Ocean Dynamics 1075 Observations of Kelvin and Rossby Waves, and El Niño 1078 Summary 1080 See also 1081 Further Reading 1081 Relevant Website 1082 ESTIMATES OF MIXING 1083 Introduction 1083 Approaches to Quantifying Mixing 1084 Large-Scale Estimates 1085 Fine- and Microscale Estimates 1086 Summary 1092 Nomenclature 1092 See also 1092 Further Reading 1093 ESTUARINE CIRCULATION 1094 Introduction 1094 Definition 1094 Tides in Estuaries 1094 Circulation Types 1095 Flushing 1098 Turbidity Maximum 1098 Estuarine Modeling 1099 See also 1099 Further Reading 1100 EUTROPHICATION 1101 Introduction 1101 Historical Background 1102 Structuring Elements and Processes 1102 Case Studies Indicating Trends and Symptoms 1106 Conceptual Model of Effects 1114 ‘Hot Spots’ and Remedial Measures 1114 See also 1118 Further Reading 1118 EVAPORATION AND HUMIDITY 1119 Introduction 1119 History/Definition and Nomenclature 1119 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 1122 Tropical Conditions of Humidity 1122 Latitudinal and Regional Variations 1123 Vertical Structure of Humidity 1123 Sublimation–Deposition 1123 Sources of Data 1123 Estimation of Evaporation by Satellite Data 1124 Future Directions and Conclusions 1124 See also 1125 Further Reading 1125 EXOTIC SPECIES, INTRODUCTION OF 1127 Introduction 1127 History 1127 The Vectors of Exotic Species 1128 The Increasing Emergence of Unexplained Events 1133 Vulnerable Regions 1133 Mode of Life 1134 Impacts on Socie

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