دانشنامه اپتیک مدرن، مجموعه پنج‌جلدی، جلد 1-5

دانشنامه اپتیک مدرن در پنج جلد، به ویراستاری باب دی. گونتر و دانکن جی. استیل، یکی از جامع‌ترین و معتبرترین منابع مرجع در حوزه فوتونیک و علوم نور به شمار می‌رود. این مجموعه که توسط انتشارات الزویر (Elsevier) و آکادمیک پرس (Academic Press) منتشر شده، دایرةالمعارفی است که مفاهیم بنیادین تا پیشرفته‌ترین کاربردهای اپتیک را در بر می‌گیرد و به عنوان یک منبع حیاتی برای پژوهشگران، اساتید و دانشجویان در سراسر جهان شناخته می‌شود.

دربارهٔ کتاب دانشنامه اپتیک مدرن، مجموعه پنج‌جلدی، جلد

این مجموعهٔ پنج‌جلدی با هدف پر کردن شکاف میان دانش تخصصی و نیاز به مرجعی فراگیر برای موضوعات خارج از حوزهٔ تخصصی افراد، تدوین شده است. دانشنامه اپتیک مدرن طیف وسیعی از مباحث را از اپتیک کلاسیک و کوانتوم گرفته تا لیزرها، فیبرهای نوری، سیستم‌های مخابرات نوری، مواد اپتیکی و دیودهای نورافشان (LED) پوشش می‌دهد. فراتر از مبانی نظری، این اثر به کاربردهای گستردهٔ این فناوری‌ها در حوزه‌های مختلف از جمله مهندسی، پزشکی، زیست‌شناسی، دفاع، علوم محیطی و اقیانوس‌شناسی نیز می‌پردازد و آن را به منبعی بین‌رشته‌ای و ارزشمند تبدیل کرده است. نکتهٔ کلیدی که این دانشنامه را از سایر منابع مشابه متمایز می‌کند، رویکرد ساختاریافته و کاربردی آن است. مقالات این مجموعه به گونه‌ای نگاشته شده‌اند که برای دانشجویان کارشناسی و حتی افراد غیرمتخصص با تحصیلات دانشگاهی قابل درک باشد، در حالی که عمق علمی آن برای محققان و دانشجویان تحصیلات تکمیلی نیز کافی است. هر مقاله با زبانی گویا و شهودی، مفاهیم پیچیده را توضیح داده و با ارائهٔ ارجاعات متقابل (Cross-references) و فهرستی از منابع برای مطالعهٔ بیشتر، مسیری روشن برای کاوش عمیق‌تر در هر موضوع فراهم می‌آورد. این مجموعه در کنار نسخهٔ چاپی، به‌صورت آنلاین در پایگاه دادهٔ ساینس دایرکت (ScienceDirect) نیز قابل دسترسی بوده و امکانات جستجوی پیشرفته و پیوندهای پویا به مقالات مجلات را در اختیار کاربران قرار می‌دهد.

دربارهٔ نویسنده

ویراستاران اصلی این مجموعهٔ ارزشمند، پروفسور باب دی. گونتر (Bob D. Guenther) و پروفسور دانکن جی. استیل (Duncan G. Steel) هستند. باب دی. گونتر، استاد مدعو در گروه فیزیک دانشگاه دوک (Duke University) در ایالات متحده است. تخصص پژوهشی ایشان بر روی سیستم‌های لیزر پالسی فمتوثانیه و مطالعهٔ پدیده‌های فوق‌سریع متمرکز بوده و در پروژه‌های متعددی از جمله توسعهٔ الکترونیک تراهرتز و تحلیل پرتوهای الکترونی نسبیتی مشارکت داشته‌اند. دانکن جی. استیل نیز یکی از چهره‌های برجسته در حوزهٔ اپتیک کوانتومی و فیزیک لیزر هستند و سابقهٔ درخشانی در انتشار مقالات علمی و هدایت پروژه‌های تحقیقاتی پیشرو دارند. همچنین در ویرایش این مجموعه از همکاری لئوپولد بایول (Leopold Bayvel) نیز به عنوان یکی از ویراستاران بهره‌مند شده است.

چرا باید دانشنامه اپتیک مدرن، مجموعه پنج‌جلدی، جلد 1-5 را بخوانید؟

مرجعی جامع و بین‌رشته‌ای: این دانشنامه با پوشش گستردهٔ مباحث از اپتیک پایه تا فناوری‌های نوین مانند فوتونیک و پردازش اطلاعات، نیازهای علمی متنوعی را برآورده می‌سازد. ساختار منحصربه‌فرد برای سطوح مختلف دانش: مطالب به گونه‌ای طراحی شده‌اند که هم برای دانشجویان کارشناسی که به دنبال درکی اولیه هستند و هم برای محققان پیشرفته که به دنبال جزئیات تخصصی‌اند، مفید و قابل استفاده باشد. ارائهٔ کاربردهای عملی فناوری نوری: این مجموعه صرفاً به مباحث نظری محدود نشده و کاربردهای عملی اپتیک را در صنایع گوناگون از جمله پزشکی، زیست‌شناسی و مهندسی به تصویر می‌کشد. دسترسی آسان به اطلاعات با ارجاعات متقابل: مقالات به‌صورت الفبایی مرتب شده و دارای ارجاعات متقابل جامعی هستند که ردیابی موضوعات مرتبط و مطالعهٔ عمیق‌تر را بسیار آسان می‌کند. ارزش افزودهٔ نسخهٔ آنلاین در ساینس دایرکت: دسترسی به نسخهٔ دیجیتال این دایرةالمعارف، امکانات جستجوی پیشرفته و دسترسی فوری به مقالات مرتبط را برای پژوهشگران فراهم می‌سازد.

این کتاب برای چه کسانی مناسب است؟

این مجموعهٔ پنج‌جلدی، دامنهٔ وسیعی از مخاطبان را هدف قرار داده است و برای هر کسی که به نوعی با علم نور و فوتونیک در ارتباط است، منبعی بی‌نظیر محسوب می‌شود. دانشجویان کارشناسی رشته‌های فیزیک و مهندسی برق می‌توانند از آن به عنوان مرجعی معتبر برای دروس خود و آشنایی با حوزه‌های جدید استفاده کنند. این اثر به‌ویژه برای دانشجویان تحصیلات تکمیلی که به دنبال جمع‌بندی مباحث نظری گسترده، دریافت توصیه‌های عملی در مورد تکنیک‌های تحقیق و کسب بینش‌های نوین برای حل مسائل پژوهشی خود هستند، بسیار سودمند است. همچنین اساتید، مدرسان و پژوهشگرانی که قصد دارند دانش خود را در حوزه‌ای خارج از تخصص اصلی‌شان گسترش دهند، این دانشنامه را منبعی ارزشمند و قابل اعتماد خواهند یافت.

سوالات متداول

آیا این دانشنامه صرفاً به مباحث نظری اپتیک می‌پردازد یا کاربردهای عملی را نیز شامل می‌شود؟

خیر، این دانشنامه علاوه بر پوشش کامل مبانی نظری اپتیک و فوتونیک، کاربردهای گسترده و عملی این علوم را در حوزه‌های مهندسی، پزشکی، زیست‌شناسی، علوم محیطی و دفاعی نیز به طور مفصل مورد بحث قرار می‌دهد.

سطح علمی مطالب این دانشنامه برای چه کسانی مناسب است؟

مقالات این مجموعه به گونه‌ای طراحی شده‌اند که برای دانشجویان کارشناسی و حتی افراد غیرمتخصص با تحصیلات دانشگاهی قابل درک باشد. در عین حال، عمق و دقت علمی آن برای دانشجویان تحصیلات تکمیلی و محققان حرفه‌ای نیز کافی و کاربردی است.

آیا نسخهٔ دیجیتال این کتاب نیز وجود دارد و چه مزایایی نسبت به نسخهٔ چاپی دارد؟

بله، این دایرةالمعارف از طریق پایگاه دادهٔ علمی ساینس دایرکت (ScienceDirect) قابل دسترسی است. نسخهٔ دیجیتال مزایایی مانند جستجوی پیشرفته، ارجاعات متقابل داخلی پویا و پیوندهای مستقیم به مقالات مجلات و پایگاه‌های داده را ارائه می‌دهد که کاوش در مطالب را بسیار کارآمدتر می‌سازد.

The encyclopedia provides valuable reference material for those working in the field who wish to know more about a topic outside their area of expertise, as well as providing an authoritative reference source for students and researchers. Undergraduate students should find it a useful source of material, as will teachers and lecturers. It will also be useful at the postgraduate level for summarizing a broad range of theoretical topics, for practical advice on research techniques and for insights into new ways of approaching research problems. Subjects covered: light and optics, lasers, optical fibers, and optical fiber systems, optical materials, and LED's, and applications of all these in control and manufacturing, data processing and storage, applications in environment, engineering, defence, ocean study, medicine and biology. Also available online via ScienceDirect - featuring extensive browsing, searching, and internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information, pricing options and availability visit www.info.sciencedirect.com. · Unparalleled reference work for all researchers in field of Optics, Fiber Systems, Material Science, Atomic and Molecular Physics, Laser Physics. · Covers all the sub fields of Optical Physics as well as related fields as Engineering, which impact manufacturing and many practical applications. · Alphabetically arranged for ease of use; cross-references to aid in tracking down all aspects of a topic under investigation. cover.jpg 1 Preface.pdf 2 sdarticle.pdf 2 Editor-in-Chief 2 sdarticle_001.pdf 3 Editors 3 sdarticle_002.pdf 4 Consulting Editors 4 sdarticle_003.pdf 5 Editorial Advisory Board 5 sdarticle_004.pdf 6 Preface 6 A.pdf 7 ALL-OPTICAL SIGNAL REGENERATION 0 Introduction 7 Generalities on Signal Regeneration 8 Principles 8 Qualification of Signal Regenerator Performance 9 All-Optical 2R/3R Regeneration Using Optical Nonlinear Gates 10 Optical Decision Element 11 Optical Clock Recovery (CR) 12 Optical Regeneration by Saturable Absorbers 13 Synchronous Modulation Technique 14 Conclusion 15 See also 15 Further Reading 16 B.pdf 17 BABINET’S PRINCIPLE 17 Fraunhofer Diffraction 17 Fresnel Diffraction 18 See also 19 Further Reading 19 C.pdf 20 sdarticle.pdf 20 CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS OF LASERS 20 Introduction 20 Laser Physics 20 Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Lasers 21 Applications of Chaos in Lasers 23 See also 25 Further Reading 25 sdarticle_001.pdf 36 Diffuse-Reflectance Laser Flash Photolysis 36 Introduction 36 Kubelka-Munk Theory of Reflectance 36 Transient Concentration Profiles 38 Kubelka-Munk Plug 38 Exponential Fall-Off of Concentration 38 Intermediate Case 38 Sample Geometry 39 Kinetic Analysis 40 Rate Constant Distributions 41 Physical Models 42 Examples 42 See also 43 Further Reading 43 sdarticle_002.pdf -1 Laser Manipulation in Polymer Science 1 Introduction 1 Principle and Method 44 Principle of Laser Trapping 44 Laser Manipulation System 45 Laser Manipulation and Patterning of Nanoparticles 46 Patterning of Polymer Nanoparticles 46 Fixation of Individual Gold Nanoparticles 47 Application to Biotechnology 47 Noncontact Rotation of Cells Using Dual Beam Laser Manipulation 48 Transfer of Cells in Microchannel 48 Collection and Alignment of Cells 49 See also 50 Further Reading 50 sdarticle_003.pdf -1 Nonlinear Spectroscopies 1 Introduction 1 Nonlinear Optics for Spectroscopy 1 Nonlinear Optical Spectroscopy in Chemistry 53 Second-Order Spectroscopies 53 Third-Order Spectroscopies 54 Ultrafast Time Resolved Spectroscopy 56 Higher-Order and Multidimensional Spectroscopies 57 Spatially Resolved Spectroscopy 57 See also 58 Further Reading 58 sdarticle_004.pdf -1 Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer 1 Introduction 1 Photoproperties of Photosensitizers 59 Mechanisms of Photodynamic Therapy 61 Lasers in PDT 62 Clinical Applications of Lasers in PDT 65 Future Prospects 66 See also 67 Further Reading 67 sdarticle_005.pdf -1 Pump and Probe Studies of Femtosecond Kinetics 1 Introduction 1 Experimental Measurement of Pump-Probe Data 68 What is Measured in a Pump-Probe Experiment 69 Origin of the Signal 69 The Coherent Spike 71 Nuclear Wavepackets 71 Femtosecond Kinetics 72 See also 72 Further Reading 73 sdarticle_006.pdf -1 Time-Correlated Single-Photon Counting 1 Introduction 1 TCSPC: The Basics 1 High Repetition Rate 74 Short Pulse Duration 75 Tunability 75 Ti-Sapphire 75 Diode Lasers 77 See also 78 Further Reading 78 sdarticle_007.pdf -1 Transient Holographic Grating Techniques in Chemical Dynamics 1 Introduction 1 Basic Principle 1 Experimental Setup 80 Applications 81 The Transient Density Phase Grating Technique 81 Investigation of Population Dynamics 84 Polarization Selective Transient Grating 85 Concluding Remarks 87 See also 87 Further Reading 87 sdarticle_008.pdf 88 Overview 88 Introduction 88 Mathematical Description of Coherence 90 Analytical Field Representation 90 Mutual Coherence 90 Degree of Coherence and the Visibility of Interference Fringes 91 Temporal and Spatial Coherence 91 Spectral Representation of Mutual Coherence 91 Propagation of Coherence 92 The van Cittert-Zernike Theorem 92 Generalized Propagation 92 Thompson and Wolf Experiment 93 Types of Fields 93 Perfectly Coherent Fields 94 Quasi-Monochromatic Fields 95 Cross-Spectrally Pure Fields 95 Types of Sources 96 Primary Sources 96 Secondary Sources 96 Schell-Model Sources 97 Quasi-Homogeneous Sources 97 Equivalence Theorems 98 Correlation-Induced Spectral Changes 98 Scaling Law 98 Spectral Changes in Young’s Interference Experiment 99 Experimental Confirmations 99 Applications of Optical Coherence 100 Stellar Interferometry 100 Interference Spectroscopy 100 Higher-Order Coherence 101 Hanbury-Brown and Twiss Experiment 102 Stellar Intensity Interferometry 102 See also 102 Further Reading 102 sdarticle_009.pdf -1 Coherence and Imaging 1 Introduction 1 Image Formation - Ideal and Optimal 1 Elementary Coherence Concepts 104 Two-point Imaging 105 Coherent Two-Point Imaging 106 Incoherent Two-Point Imaging 106 Partially Coherent Two-Point Imaging 107 Source Distribution and Object Illumination Coherence 107 Spatial Frequency Modeling of Imaging 108 Experimental Examples of Important Coherence Imaging Phenomena 110 Primary Source Generation 111 Noise Immunity 112 Edge Response 114 Depth of Field 114 Digital Post-detection Processing and Partial Coherence 114 Summary and Discussion 115 See also 118 Further Reading 118 sdarticle_010.pdf -1 Speckle and Coherence 1 Introduction 1 Practical Coherence Theory 1 Some Basic Observations 119 Speckle Limits of Metrology 122 Why Are We Not Aware of Coherence 123 Can We Overcome Coherence Limits 123 Broadband Illumination 124 Speckles as a Carrier of Information 124 Summary 126 See also 126 Further Reading 126 sdarticle_011.pdf -1 Theory 1 Introduction 1 Quantum Optimal Control Theory for Designing Laser Fields 129 Algorithms for Implementing Optimal Control Experiments 131 Conclusions 136 Acknowledgments 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_012.pdf 137 Experimental 137 Introduction 137 Time-Dependent Methods 139 Two-Path Interference Methods 139 Closed-Loop Control Methods 140 See also 141 Further Reading 141 sdarticle_013.pdf -1 Applications in Semiconductors 1 Introduction 1 Coherence Control 142 Coherence Control in Semiconductors 143 Coherent Control of Electrical Current Using Two Color Beams 144 Coherent Control of Carrier Density, Spin Population, and Spin Current Using Two Color Beams 146 Coherent Control of Electrical Current Using Single Color Beams 147 Conclusions 147 See also 147 Further Reading 147 sdarticle_014.pdf 148 COHERENT LIGHTWAVE SYSTEMS 0 Introduction 148 Basic Principles 149 Modulation Schemes 150 Detection Schemes 150 PSK Homodyne Detection 150 ASK Homodyne Detection 151 PSK Heterodyne Synchronous Detection 151 ASK Heterodyne Synchronous Detection 151 FSK Heterodyne Synchronous Detection 151 ASK Heterodyne Envelope Detection 152 FSK Heterodyne Dual-Filter Detection 152 FSK Heterodyne Single-Filter Detection 152 CPFSK Heterodyne Differential Detection 152 DPSK Heterodyne Differential Detection 153 Coherent Receiver Sensitivity 153 Phase Noise 154 PSK Homodyne Detection - Phase Locked Loop Schemes 154 Heterodyne Phase Locking 155 Asynchronous Systems 155 Differential Detection 155 Phase-Diversity Receivers 155 Polarization 156 Comparisons Between the Principal Demodulation Schemes 157 System Experiments 157 Conclusion 158 See also 158 Further Reading 158 sdarticle_015.pdf -1 Coherent Transient Spectroscopy in Atomic and Molecular Vapors 1 Introduction 1 Optical Bloch Equations 159 Maxwell-Bloch Equations 160 Coherent Transient Signals 161 Free Polarization Decay 161 Photon Echo 162 Stimulated Photon Echo 164 Optical Ramsey Fringes 165 Atom Interferometry 166 Conclusion 166 Acknowledgments 166 See also 167 Further Reading 167 sdarticle_016.pdf -1 Foundations of Coherent Transients in Semiconductors 1 Introduction 1 Basic Principles 168 Optical Bloch Equations 168 Semiconductor Bloch Equations 169 Examples 170 Radiative Decay 170 Superradiance 170 Destructive Interference 171 Quantum Beats 172 Coherent Control 173 Transient Absorption Changes 174 Spectral Oscillations 176 Photon Echo 176 See also 177 Further Reading 177 sdarticle_017.pdf -1 Ultrafast Studies of Semiconductors 1 Introduction 1 Coherent Dynamics 178 Incoherent Relaxation Dynamics 179 Nonthermal Regime 180 Hot Carrier Regime 180 Isothermal Regime 181 Hot Phonons 181 Tunneling and Transport Dynamics 182 Novel Coherent Phenomena 182 Summary 183 See also 183 Further Reading 183 sdarticle_018.pdf -1 COLOR AND THE WORLD -1 Color and Wavelength (Spectral and Nonspectral Colors) 1 The Human Visual System and Color Perception 184 Photoreceptors in the Eye: Rods and Cones 184 Color Perception 185 Temporal Response of the Human Visual System 185 Spatial Resolution of the Human Visual System 186 Color Perception Models 186 Measuring Color and Colorimetry 187 Munsell Color System 187 The Commission Internationale de l’Echlairage (C.I.E.) Diagram 187 Color in the Nature 189 Atmospheric Colors 189 Colors due to Water and Water Droplets 191 Color in Art and Holography 193 Sources of Color 193 Structural Colors in Nature 194 Nanoscale Photonic Lattices 194 See also 194 Further Reading 194 sdarticle_.pdf -1 Detection of Single Molecules in Liquids 26 Introduction 26 The Absorption-Emission Cycle 26 Signal vs Background 27 Single Molecule Detection using Confocal Microscopy 28 Optical Probe Volumes 29 Intensity Fluctuations: Photon Burst Statistics 30 Data Filtering 32 Photon Burst Statistics 33 Temporal Fluctuations: Autocorrelation Analysis 34 Applications 35 See also 35 Further Reading 35 D.pdf 195 sdarticle.pdf 195 Fiber Sensors 195 Introduction 195 Intensity-Based Fiber Sensors 196 Interferometric Sensors 196 Fiber Grating Sensors 200 Fiber Laser Doppler Velocimeter 202 Luminescence-Based Fiber Sensors 203 Distributed Fiber Sensing 204 See also 204 Further Reading 204 sdarticle_001.pdf 205 Heterodyning 205 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_002.pdf 210 Image Post-Processing and Electronic Distribution 210 Introduction 210 Techniques in Image Post-Processing 212 Image Formation 212 Spatial Domain Processing 213 Fractals for Texture Analysis 213 Frequency Domain Image Filtering 214 Time-Frequency Domain Processing 214 Image Post-Processing Examples 214 Example I: Spatial Domain Processing: Image Post-Processing in Biomedical Image 215 Example II: Frequency Domain Processing: Image Post-Processing in Biomedical Tissue Detection 215 Example III: Time-Frequency Domain Filtering: Image Post-Processing in Noise Reduction (De-Noising) 216 Image Post-processing, Transmission, and Distribution 218 Techniques in Image Distribution 219 Requirements of Secure Digital Image Distribution 219 Concluding Remarks 222 Acknowledgment 222 See also 222 Further Reading 222 sdarticle_003.pdf 223 Smart Pixel Arrays 223 Introduction 223 Silicon Technology for Image Sensing 223 Basic Functionality and Physical Limitations of Conventional Solid-State Photosensors 224 Desired Optoelectronic Functionality in Smart Pixel Arrays 225 Modular Building Blocks for Smart Pixel Arrays 226 High-Sensitivity Charge Detection 226 Photosensing with Improved Dynamic Range 227 Extension of the Spectral Sensitivity Range 227 High-Speed Image Sensing 228 Static Spatial Demodulation 228 Dynamic Spatial Convolution 229 Temporal Demodulation 230 Photonic Systems-on-chip 230 Seeing Chips 231 Organic Semiconductors for Monolithic Photonic Microsystems 231 Smart Pixel Arrays Beyond Electromagnetic Field Imaging 231 Summary 231 List of Units and Nomenclature 232 See also 232 Further Reading 232 sdarticle_004.pdf 233 Diffraction Gratings 233 Introduction 233 Grating Equations 233 Grating Theory 235 Fabrication of Gratings 236 Some Grating Applications 239 Spectroscopic Gratings 239 Diffractive Lenses 240 Beam Splitter Gratings 241 Inductive Grid Filters 242 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_005.pdf 243 Fraunhofer Diffraction 243 Introduction 243 Kirchhoff Theory of Diffraction 244 Fraunhofer Approximation 249 Definition of Fourier Transform 251 Diffraction by a Rectangular Aperture 251 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture 252 Array Theorem 254 N Rectangular Slits 255 Young’s Double Slit 256 The Diffraction Grating 256 Grating Spectrometer 258 Blazed Gratings 259 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_006.pdf 261 Fresnel Diffraction 261 The Obliquity Factor 262 Rectangular Apertures 267 The Cornu Spiral 267 Fresnel Zones 269 Circular Aperture 271 Opaque Screen 272 Zone Plate 273 Fermat’s Principle 274 Further Reading 274 sdarticle_007.pdf 275 Aberration Correction with Diffractive Elements 275 Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs 275 Sweatt Model for the Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs 276 Local Grating Model for the Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs 276 Correction of Monochromatic Aberrations 278 Aberration Correction for Interferometrically Recorded Holograms 278 Testing of Aspheric Surfaces by Using a DOE as Aberration Compensating Element 279 Numerical Optimization of DOEs in Optical Systems 281 Correction of Chromatic Aberrations 281 Summary 283 List of Units and Nomenclature 284 See also 284 Further Reading 284 sdarticle_008.pdf 285 Applications of Diffractive and Micro-Optics in Lithography 285 Introduction 285 Overview of Conventional Lithography Systems 285 Resolution Enhancement Techniques 287 Overview of Micro-Optics 288 Micro-Optics in Conventional Lithography Systems 288 Custom Diffusers for Illumination 289 Aperture Modulated Diffusers 289 Fan-Out Based Diffusers 291 Micro-Optics and Non-Conventional Lithography 292 Outlook 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_009.pdf 294 Design and Fabrication of Diffractive Optical Elements 294 Introduction 294 Design 295 Fabrication 297 Multilevel Fabrication Using Binary Masks 297 Continuous DOE Profiles Using Grayscale Lithography 299 Final Remarks 301 See also 301 Further Reading 301 sdarticle_010.pdf 302 Diffractive Laser Resonators 302 Introduction 302 Modes in Laser Resonators 302 Design Principles 303 Use of General Resonator Modes 305 Examples 306 Conclusion 308 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_011.pdf 309 Diffractives in Animals 309 Introduction 309 Multilayer Reflectors 310 Diffraction Gratings 313 Scattering (Incoherent Reflectors) 318 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_012.pdf 320 Microstructure Fibers 320 Introduction 320 Microstructure Fiber Fabrication 321 Preform Fabrication 321 Fiber Draw 322 Microstructure Fiber Types 322 Index Guided Fibers 322 Bandgap Guided Fibers 328 Tunable Microstructure Fiber Devices 329 See also 330 Further Reading 330 sdarticle_013.pdf 331 Omnidirectional Surfaces and Fibers 331 Omnidirectional Reflecting Mirrors 331 Mesostructured Fibers for External Reflection Applications 333 Fabrication Approach 333 Materials Selection Criteria 334 Preform Construction Process and Fiber Draw 335 Bandstructure for Multilayer Fibers for External Reflection Applications 335 Optical Characterization of ‘Mirror Fibers’ 336 Tunable ‘Fabry-Perot’ Fibers 337 Structure and Optical Properties of the Fabry-Perot Fibers 337 Simulation of the Opto-Mechanical Behavior of the Fabry-Perot Fibers 338 Mechanical Tuning Experiment and Discussion 339 Wavelength-Scalable Hollow Optical Fibers with Large Photonic Bandgaps for CO2 Laser Transmission 340 See also 343 Further Reading 343 sdarticle_014.pdf 344 Wave Optical Modeling and Design 344 Introduction 344 Modeling Principles 344 Free Propagation 345 Propagation Through Elements 347 Design Principles 349 Fundamental Systems 351 See also 356 Further Reading 356 sdarticle_015.pdf 357 DISPERSION MANAGEMENT 357 Introduction 357 Chromatic Dispersion in Optical Fiber Communication Systems 357 Chromatic Dispersion Management 359 Optical Nonlinearities as Factors to be Considered in Dispersion Compensation 359 Dispersion Maps 360 Corrections to Linear Dispersion Maps 361 Dispersion Management Solutions 362 Fixed Dispersion Compensation 362 Tunable Dispersion Compensation 364 Dispersion Slope Mismatch 367 Chromatic Dispersion Monitoring 367 Conclusion 368 See also 369 Further Reading 369 sdarticle_016.pdf 370 DISPLAYS 0 Introduction 370 Definition of a Display 370 Optical Characteristics of a Display 370 Luminance 370 Illuminance 370 Reflectivity 370 Color 370 Gloss 370 Contrast Ratio 370 Phosphor Aging 372 Ambient Illumination and Reflection 372 Types of Displays 372 Table of Emissive and Nonemissive Displays 372 The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) 373 The Color CRT 374 The Vacuum Fluorescent Display (VFD) 375 Field Emissive Displays (FEDs) 375 Plasma Displays 376 Electroluminescence 376 Inorganic LED Displays 376 Organic LEDs 377 Thin Film EL (TFEL) Displays 378 The Active Matrix LCD 379 Reflective LCD 379 Transflective LCD 380 Conclusions 380 See also 380 Further Reading 380 E.pdf 381 sdarticle.pdf 381 ELECTROMAGNETICALLY INDUCED TRANSPARENCY 381 Introduction 381 Theoretical Treatment of EIT in a Three-Level Medium 382 Nonlinear Optical Processes 384 Propagation and Wave-Mixing in a Doppler Broadened Medium 385 Nonlinear Optics with a Pair of Strong Coupling Fields in Raman Resonance 386 Pulse Propagation and Nonlinear Optics for Weak CW Fields 387 See also 388 Further Reading 388 sdarticle_001.pdf 389 Doppler Lidar 389 Introduction 389 Doppler Lidar Fundamentals 389 Backscattered Light 389 Elements of a Doppler Lidar 390 Coherent (Heterodyne) Doppler Lidar 391 Description 391 Applications of Coherent Doppler Lidar 392 Direct Detection Doppler Lidar 394 Description 394 Doppler Wind Measurements Based on Molecular Scatter 396 Heterodyne and Direct-Detection Doppler Trade-Offs 396 Global Wind Measurements 397 See also 398 Further Reading 398 sdarticle_002.pdf 399 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Land and the Atmosphere 399 Introduction 399 Underlying Principles 399 Data Processing Approaches 402 Spectral Matching 402 Spectral Mixture Analysis 402 Expert Systems and Artificial Neural Networks 403 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of the Land 403 Geology 403 Vegetation and the Environment 404 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere 406 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_003.pdf 407 Laser Detection of Atmospheric Gases 407 Introduction 407 Surface-Based Lidar Systems 408 Airborne DIAL Systems 408 Field Measurement Programs 409 Global O3 Measurements 409 Space-Based O3 DIAL System 411 Global H2O Measurements 412 H2O Raman Lidar Systems 413 H2O DIAL Systems 414 Space-Based H2O DIAL System 415 Tunable Laser Systems for Point Monitoring 415 Laser Long-Path Measurements 418 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) 419 Summary 419 See also 419 Further Reading 419 sdarticle_004.pdf 420 Optical Transmission and Scatter of the Atmosphere 420 Introduction 420 Atmospheric Constituents 421 Gases 421 Liquids and Solids 422 Solution Methods 422 Geometry 422 Spectral Resolution 422 Scattering Methods 423 An Example Atmospheric RT Model: MODTRAN 424 Applications 425 Earth Surface Viewing 425 Sun and Sky Viewing 425 See also 427 Further Reading 427 F.pdf 428 sdarticle.pdf 428 Overview 428 Introduction 428 Fiber Optics 428 Active Fiber Compatible Components 431 Telecommunications Technology 432 Integrated Optics as a Future of Guided Wave Optics 433 See also 434 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_001.pdf 435 Dispersion 435 Introduction 435 Effect of Dispersion on an Optical Signal 435 Material Group Velocity Dispersion 438 Waveguide Group Velocity Dispersion 440 See also 442 Further Reading 442 sdarticle_002.pdf 443 Fabrication of Optical Fiber 443 Introduction 443 Preform Fabrication 444 MCVD Process 444 OVD Process 445 VAD Process 445 Other Methods of Preform Fabrication 446 Fiber Drawing 446 Furnaces 447 Diameter Measurement 447 Fiber Coating 447 Types of Fiber 448 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_003.pdf 449 Light Propagation 449 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_004.pdf 452 Measuring Fiber Characteristics 452 Introduction 452 Fiber Optical Characteristics and Corresponding Tests Methods 452 Attenuation 452 Macrobending Sensitivity 455 Microbending Sensitivity 455 Cut-off Wavelength 456 Multimode Fiber Bandwidth for Multimode Fibers 456 Differential Mode Delay for Multimode Fibers 457 Chromatic Dispersion 457 Polarization Mode Dispersion 459 Polarization Crosstalk 462 Nonlinear Effects 462 Fiber Dimension Characteristics and Corresponding Tests Methods 464 Fiber Geometry Characteristics 464 Numerical Aperture 466 Mode Field Diameter 467 Effective Area 467 Mechanical Measurement and Test Methods 468 Proof Stressing 468 Residual Stress 468 Stress Corrosion Susceptibility 468 Environmental Characteristics 468 Hydrogen Aging for Low-Water-Peak Single-Mode Fiber 468 Nuclear Gamma Irradiation 468 See also 468 Further Reading 468 sdarticle_005.pdf 469 Nonlinear Effects (Basics) 469 Introduction 469 Linear and Nonlinear Signatures 469 Physical Origin of Optical Nonlinearity 470 Parametric Phenomena in Optical Fibers 471 Optical Kerr Effect 472 Four-Wave Mixing 472 Conclusion 473 List of Units and Nomenclature 473 See also 473 Further Reading 473 sdarticle_006.pdf 474 Nonlinear Optics 474 Introduction 474 Nonlinear Polarization 475 Second-Harmonic Generation in Crystals 475 Quasi Phase Matching (QPM) 477 Third-Order Nonlinear Effects 479 Self-Phase Modulation (SPM) 479 Propagation of a Pulse 481 Spectral Broadening due to SPM 482 Cross Phase Modulation (XPM) 482 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) 484 Supercontinuum Generation 486 Conclusions 487 See also 488 Further Reading 488 sdarticle_007.pdf 489 Optical Fiber Cables 489 Introduction 489 Secondary Fiber Coating 489 Tight Jacket 489 Loose Jacket 490 Fiber Identification 490 Cable Components 491 Cable Core 491 Strength Member 491 Sheaths 492 Filling Compounds and Other Components 492 Optical Cable Structures, Types, and Applications 493 Cable Structures 493 Types and Applications 494 Submarine Cables 495 Special Cables 495 Blown Fiber 495 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_008.pdf 496 Passive Optical Components 496 Introduction 496 Optical Joint Devices 496 General Considerations 496 Optical Connectors 498 Mechanical Splices 499 Branching Devices 499 Nonwavelength-Selective Branching Devices 500 WDM 500 Other Passive Optical Components 502 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_009.pdf 503 FIBER GRATINGS 503 Fiber Modes 503 Fiber Grating Theory 504 Fiber Grating Fabrication 508 Photosensitivity 508 Grating Inscription 509 Applications 510 Fiber Grating Strain and Temperature Sensitivity 510 Fiber Grating Stabilized Diode Lasers and Fiber Lasers 510 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers 510 Gain-Flattening Loss Filters 511 Dispersion Compensator 511 Optical Monitors 512 Advanced Topic in Fiber Gratings 513 Fiber Gratings in Air-Silica Microstructured Optical Fibers 513 Nonlinear Optics in Fiber Gratings 513 See also 514 Further Reading 514 sdarticle_010.pdf 515 FOURIER OPTICS 515 Introduction 515 Fourier Transform Property of Lens 515 4-f Coherent Optical Processor 517 Spatial Filtering 518 Complex Matched Spatial Filtering 519 Joint Transform Correlator 520 See also 522 Further Reading 522 G.pdf 523 sdarticle.pdf 523 Lenses and Mirrors 523 Introduction 523 The Cardinal Points and Planes of an Optical System 523 Paraxial Matrices 525 Using the Gaussian Constants 526 Nodal Points and Planes 529 Compound Lenses 530 Approximations for Thin Lenses 530 The Paraxial System for Design or Analysis 531 Reflectors 532 Conclusion 1 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_001.pdf 533 Aberrations 533 Introduction 533 Coma 535 Astigmatism 538 Curvature of Field and Distortion 539 Nonspherical Surfaces 540 Conclusion 540 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_002.pdf 541 Prisms 541 Introduction 541 Single Prisms as Reflectors 541 Double Prism Reflectors 543 Prisms as Instruments 544 See also 545 Further Reading 545 H.pdf 546 sdarticle.pdf 546 Art Holography 546 Introduction 546 Early Exploration 547 Holographic Black Holes 547 Public Display 548 Stability Solutions 550 Object Holography 550 Pulsed Lasers 552 Abstraction 553 Pseudo Holograms 553 Multi Media 554 Architectural Scale 554 Twenty-First Century Art 556 See also 557 Further Reading 557 sdarticle_001.pdf 558 High-Resolution Holographic Imaging and Subsea Holography 558 Introduction 558 Methodology of Holographic Recording and Replay 558 Holographic Image Quality 562 Underwater Holography 563 Underwater Holographic Cameras 564 The HoloMar System 566 See also 567 Further Reading 567 sdarticle_002.pdf 568 Holographic Recording Materials and Their Processing 568 Introduction 568 Holographic Recording Materials 568 Recording Materials 570 Sensitivity of Photographic and Holographic Materials 570 Silver Halide Materials 571 Substrates for Holographic Emulsions 571 Processing of Silver Halide Emulsions 571 Holographic Developers 573 Bleach Baths 573 Commercial Silver Halide Emulsions 574 Dichromated Gelatin Materials 574 Commercial DCG Materials 575 Photopolymer Materials 575 Commercial Pholymer Materials 576 Photoresist Materials 576 Commercial Resist Materials 576 Thermoplastic Materials 576 Commercial Thermoplastic Materials 577 Bacteriorhodopsin 577 Commercial BR Materials 578 Photorefractive Crystal Materials 578 See also 578 Further Reading 578 sdarticle_003.pdf 579 Overview 579 Basic Holography Principle 580 Hologram of a Point Object 580 Production of an Orthoscopic Real Image 581 Simple Mathematical Description of Holography 581 Types of Holograms 581 Recording Materials 582 Application of Holography 583 See also 584 Further Reading 584 sdarticle_004.pdf 585 Color Holography 585 Introduction 585 The Development of Color Holography 585 Recording of Color Holograms 586 Silver Halide Materials 586 Photopolymer Materials 587 Laser Wavelengths for Color Holograms 587 Setup for Recording Color Holograms 588 Processing of Color Holograms 589 Evaluation of Color Holograms 590 Computer-Generated Color Holograms 590 The Future of Color Holography 591 See also 592 Further Reading 592 sdarticle_005.pdf 593 Computer-Generated Holograms 593 Introduction 593 From the Classical Hologram to the Computer-Generated Hologram: CGH 593 From a Diffraction Grating to a Fourier CGH 594 About Some CGH Algorithms 596 Some Hardware Aspects 598 Some CGH Applications 598 See also 599 Further Reading 599 sdarticle_006.pdf 600 Digital Holography 600 Introduction 600 Direct Phase Reconstruction by Digital Holography 600 Reconstruction Principles in Digital Holography 603 The Fresnel Approximation 603 Numerical Reconstruction by the Convolution Approach 604 Numerical Reconstruction by the Lensless Fourier Approach 605 Influences of Discretization 606 Advantages of Digital Holography 607 See also 607 Further Reading 608 sdarticle_007.pdf 609 Holographic Interferometry 609 Introduction 609 Basic Methods in Holographic Interferometry 609 Double-Exposure Holographic Interferometry 609 Real-Time Holographic Interferometry 610 Digital Holographic Interferometry 611 Calculation of Phase Change on Object Loading 611 Digital Phase Measurement 611 Basic Interferometers for Static Displacement Measurement 612 Out-of-Plane Displacement Component Measurement 612 In-Plane Displacement Component Measurement 612 Comparative Holographic Interferometry 613 Basic Interferometers for Dynamic Displacement Measurement 613 Frozen Time-Average Holographic Interferometry 614 Real-Time Time-Average Holographic Interferometry 614 Stroboscopic Holographic Interferometry 615 Flow Measurement 615 Surface Contouring 616 The Dual Refractive Index Method 616 The Dual Illumination Method 616 Holographic Shearing Interferometry 618 Examples of Applications 619 Conclusions 619 See also 619 Further Reading 619 sdarticle_008.pdf 620 Sandwich Holography and Light in Flight 620 Introduction to Holographic Interferometry 620 Interferometric Sensitivity 620 The Principle of Sandwich Holography 621 Examples 622 Introduction to Light-in-flight Recording by Holography 623 Examples of Wavefront Studies 624 Measuring the Shape of 3D Objects 625 Other Uses 626 See also 626 Further Reading 626 I.pdf 628 sdarticle.pdf 628 Information Theory in Imaging 628 Introduction 628 Model of Imaging 628 Description 628 Radiance Field 629 Image Gathering 630 Signal Coding 631 Image Restoration 632 Figures of Merit 633 Information Rate H 633 Theoretical Minimum Data Rate E 633 Information Efficiency H/E 633 Maximum-Realizable Fidelity F 633 Performance and Design Trade-offs 634 Electro-optical Design 634 Information Rate and Data Rate 635 Throughput SFR 635 Information Rate, Fidelity and Robustness 635 Information Rate and Visual Quality 636 Concluding Remarks 638 See also 638 Further Reading 638 sdarticle_001.pdf 639 Inverse Problems and Computational Imaging 639 Introduction 639 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_002.pdf 648 Adaptive Optics 648 Introduction 648 Slow Corrections: Active Optics 650 Fast Corrections: Adaptive Optics 650 Imaging Through the Atmosphere 651 Adaptive System Design 652 Future Development 653 Other Adaptive Optics Applications 654 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_003.pdf 655 Hyperspectral Imaging 655 Introduction 655 Image Parameters 656 Multispectral Imaging 656 Hyperspectral Imaging 658 Interferometric Hyperspectral Imaging 658 Spatial Resolution 659 Field of View 659 Spectral Resolution 659 Grating-Dispersion Hyperspectral Imaging 660 Linear Variable Filter (LVF) 661 Spatial Resolution 661 Field of View 661 Spectral Resolution 661 Software 661 Description of Acquisition 663 MicroArray Scanning and Customized Excitation 663 See also 663 Further Reading 663 sdarticle_004.pdf 664 Imaging Through Scattering Media 664 Introduction 664 Optical Parameters 665 Scattering Cross-Section 665 Absorption Cross-Section 666 Photon Migration in Scattering Media 667 Imaging in the Ballistic Regime: Taking Advantage of Various Coherence Properties 667 Shallow Tissue Imaging Through Selection of Ballistic Photons 667 Imaging in the Snake-Like Regime: Taking Advantage of Time (or Frequency) Gating 669 Imaging in the Multiple Scattering Regime: Taking Advantage of all the Photons 671 Light Only: Transillumination and Fluorescence Imaging 671 Coupling Light and Sound: Acousto-Optic and Photo-Acoustic 671 Opto- (or Photo-)Acoustics 671 Acousto-Optic 672 Conclusion 1 Acknowledgements 1 See also 1 Further Reading 1 sdarticle_005.pdf 673 Infrared Imaging 673 Introduction 673 History of Infrared Imaging 676 Types of Infrared Imagers 677 Infrared Imager P cover.jpg......Page 1 Editor-in-Chief......Page 2 Editors......Page 3 Consulting Editors......Page 4 Editorial Advisory Board......Page 5 Preface......Page 6 Introduction......Page 7 The Helium-Neon Laser......Page 0 Principles......Page 8 Qualification of Signal Regenerator Performance......Page 9 All-Optical 2R/3R Regeneration Using Optical Nonlinear Gates......Page 10 Optical Decision Element......Page 11 Optical Clock Recovery (CR)......Page 12 Optical Regeneration by Saturable Absorbers......Page 13 Synchronous Modulation Technique......Page 14 See also......Page 15 Further Reading......Page 16 Fraunhofer Diffraction......Page 17 Fresnel Diffraction......Page 18 Further Reading......Page 19 Laser Physics......Page 20 Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Lasers......Page 21 Applications of Chaos in Lasers......Page 23 Further Reading......Page 25 Kubelka-Munk Theory of Reflectance......Page 36 Intermediate Case......Page 38 Sample Geometry......Page 39 Kinetic Analysis......Page 40 Rate Constant Distributions......Page 41 Examples......Page 42 Further Reading......Page 43 Principle of Laser Trapping......Page 44 Laser Manipulation System......Page 45 Patterning of Polymer Nanoparticles......Page 46 Application to Biotechnology......Page 47 Transfer of Cells in Microchannel......Page 48 Collection and Alignment of Cells......Page 49 Further Reading......Page 50 Second-Order Spectroscopies......Page 53 Third-Order Spectroscopies......Page 54 Ultrafast Time Resolved Spectroscopy......Page 56 Spatially Resolved Spectroscopy......Page 57 Further Reading......Page 58 Photoproperties of Photosensitizers......Page 59 Mechanisms of Photodynamic Therapy......Page 61 Lasers in PDT......Page 62 Clinical Applications of Lasers in PDT......Page 65 Future Prospects......Page 66 Further Reading......Page 67 Experimental Measurement of Pump-Probe Data......Page 68 Origin of the Signal......Page 69 Nuclear Wavepackets......Page 71 See also......Page 72 Further Reading......Page 73 High Repetition Rate......Page 74 Ti-Sapphire......Page 75 Diode Lasers......Page 77 Further Reading......Page 78 Experimental Setup......Page 80 The Transient Density Phase Grating Technique......Page 81 Investigation of Population Dynamics......Page 84 Polarization Selective Transient Grating......Page 85 Further Reading......Page 87 Introduction......Page 88 Mutual Coherence......Page 90 Spectral Representation of Mutual Coherence......Page 91 Generalized Propagation......Page 92 Types of Fields......Page 93 Perfectly Coherent Fields......Page 94 Cross-Spectrally Pure Fields......Page 95 Secondary Sources......Page 96 Quasi-Homogeneous Sources......Page 97 Scaling Law......Page 98 Experimental Confirmations......Page 99 Interference Spectroscopy......Page 100 Higher-Order Coherence......Page 101 Further Reading......Page 102 Elementary Coherence Concepts......Page 104 Two-point Imaging......Page 105 Incoherent Two-Point Imaging......Page 106 Source Distribution and Object Illumination Coherence......Page 107 Spatial Frequency Modeling of Imaging......Page 108 Experimental Examples of Important Coherence Imaging Phenomena......Page 110 Primary Source Generation......Page 111 Noise Immunity......Page 112 Digital Post-detection Processing and Partial Coherence......Page 114 Summary and Discussion......Page 115 Further Reading......Page 118 Some Basic Observations......Page 119 Speckle Limits of Metrology......Page 122 Can We Overcome Coherence Limits......Page 123 Speckles as a Carrier of Information......Page 124 Further Reading......Page 126 Quantum Optimal Control Theory for Designing Laser Fields......Page 129 Algorithms for Implementing Optimal Control Experiments......Page 131 Conclusions......Page 136 Introduction......Page 137 Two-Path Interference Methods......Page 139 Closed-Loop Control Methods......Page 140 Further Reading......Page 141 Coherence Control......Page 142 Coherence Control in Semiconductors......Page 143 Coherent Control of Electrical Current Using Two Color Beams......Page 144 Coherent Control of Carrier Density, Spin Population, and Spin Current Using Two Color Beams......Page 146 Further Reading......Page 147 Introduction......Page 148 Basic Principles......Page 149 PSK Homodyne Detection......Page 150 FSK Heterodyne Synchronous Detection......Page 151 CPFSK Heterodyne Differential Detection......Page 152 Coherent Receiver Sensitivity......Page 153 PSK Homodyne Detection - Phase Locked Loop Schemes......Page 154 Phase-Diversity Receivers......Page 155 Polarization......Page 156 System Experiments......Page 157 Further Reading......Page 158 Optical Bloch Equations......Page 159 Maxwell-Bloch Equations......Page 160 Free Polarization Decay......Page 161 Photon Echo......Page 162 Stimulated Photon Echo......Page 164 Optical Ramsey Fringes......Page 165 Acknowledgments......Page 166 Further Reading......Page 167 Optical Bloch Equations......Page 168 Semiconductor Bloch Equations......Page 169 Superradiance......Page 170 Destructive Interference......Page 171 Quantum Beats......Page 172 Coherent Control......Page 173 Transient Absorption Changes......Page 174 Photon Echo......Page 176 Further Reading......Page 177 Coherent Dynamics......Page 178 Incoherent Relaxation Dynamics......Page 179 Hot Carrier Regime......Page 180 Hot Phonons......Page 181 Novel Coherent Phenomena......Page 182 Further Reading......Page 183 Photoreceptors in the Eye: Rods and Cones......Page 184 Temporal Response of the Human Visual System......Page 185 Color Perception Models......Page 186 The Commission Internationale de l’Echlairage (C.I.E.) Diagram......Page 187 Atmospheric Colors......Page 189 Colors due to Water and Water Droplets......Page 191 Sources of Color......Page 193 Further Reading......Page 194 The Absorption-Emission Cycle......Page 26 Signal vs Background......Page 27 Single Molecule Detection using Confocal Microscopy......Page 28 Optical Probe Volumes......Page 29 Intensity Fluctuations: Photon Burst Statistics......Page 30 Data Filtering......Page 32 Photon Burst Statistics......Page 33 Temporal Fluctuations: Autocorrelation Analysis......Page 34 Further Reading......Page 35 Introduction......Page 195 Interferometric Sensors......Page 196 Fiber Grating Sensors......Page 200 Fiber Laser Doppler Velocimeter......Page 202 Luminescence-Based Fiber Sensors......Page 203 Further Reading......Page 204 Heterodyning......Page 205 Introduction......Page 210 Image Formation......Page 212 Fractals for Texture Analysis......Page 213 Image Post-Processing Examples......Page 214 Example II: Frequency Domain Processing: Image Post-Processing in Biomedical Tissue Detection......Page 215 Example III: Time-Frequency Domain Filtering: Image Post-Processing in Noise Reduction (De-Noising)......Page 216 Image Post-processing, Transmission, and Distribution......Page 218 Requirements of Secure Digital Image Distribution......Page 219 Further Reading......Page 222 Silicon Technology for Image Sensing......Page 223 Basic Functionality and Physical Limitations of Conventional Solid-State Photosensors......Page 224 Desired Optoelectronic Functionality in Smart Pixel Arrays......Page 225 High-Sensitivity Charge Detection......Page 226 Extension of the Spectral Sensitivity Range......Page 227 Static Spatial Demodulation......Page 228 Dynamic Spatial Convolution......Page 229 Photonic Systems-on-chip......Page 230 Summary......Page 231 Further Reading......Page 232 Grating Equations......Page 233 Grating Theory......Page 235 Fabrication of Gratings......Page 236 Spectroscopic Gratings......Page 239 Diffractive Lenses......Page 240 Beam Splitter Gratings......Page 241 Inductive Grid Filters......Page 242 Introduction......Page 243 Kirchhoff Theory of Diffraction......Page 244 Fraunhofer Approximation......Page 249 Diffraction by a Rectangular Aperture......Page 251 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture......Page 252 Array Theorem......Page 254 N Rectangular Slits......Page 255 The Diffraction Grating......Page 256 Grating Spectrometer......Page 258 Blazed Gratings......Page 259 Fresnel Diffraction......Page 261 The Obliquity Factor......Page 262 The Cornu Spiral......Page 267 Fresnel Zones......Page 269 Circular Aperture......Page 271 Opaque Screen......Page 272 Zone Plate......Page 273 Further Reading......Page 274 Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs......Page 275 Local Grating Model for the Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs......Page 276 Aberration Correction for Interferometrically Recorded Holograms......Page 278 Testing of Aspheric Surfaces by Using a DOE as Aberration Compensating Element......Page 279 Correction of Chromatic Aberrations......Page 281 Summary......Page 283 Further Reading......Page 284 Overview of Conventional Lithography Systems......Page 285 Resolution Enhancement Techniques......Page 287 Micro-Optics in Conventional Lithography Systems......Page 288 Aperture Modulated Diffusers......Page 289 Fan-Out Based Diffusers......Page 291 Micro-Optics and Non-Conventional Lithography......Page 292 Introduction......Page 294 Design......Page 295 Multilevel Fabrication Using Binary Masks......Page 297 Continuous DOE Profiles Using Grayscale Lithography......Page 299 Further Reading......Page 301 Modes in Laser Resonators......Page 302 Design Principles......Page 303 Use of General Resonator Modes......Page 305 Examples......Page 306 Conclusion......Page 308 Introduction......Page 309 Multilayer Reflectors......Page 310 Diffraction Gratings......Page 313 Scattering (Incoherent Reflectors)......Page 318 Introduction......Page 320 Preform Fabrication......Page 321 Index Guided Fibers......Page 322 Bandgap Guided Fibers......Page 328 Tunable Microstructure Fiber Devices......Page 329 Further Reading......Page 330 Omnidirectional Reflecting Mirrors......Page 331 Fabrication Approach......Page 333 Materials Selection Criteria......Page 334 Bandstructure for Multilayer Fibers for External Reflection Applications......Page 335 Optical Characterization of ‘Mirror Fibers’......Page 336 Structure and Optical Properties of the Fabry-Perot Fibers......Page 337 Simulation of the Opto-Mechanical Behavior of the Fabry-Perot Fibers......Page 338 Mechanical Tuning Experiment and Discussion......Page 339 Wavelength-Scalable Hollow Optical Fibers with Large Photonic Bandgaps for CO2 Laser Transmission......Page 340 Further Reading......Page 343 Modeling Principles......Page 344 Free Propagation......Page 345 Propagation Through Elements......Page 347 Design Principles......Page 349 Fundamental Systems......Page 351 Further Reading......Page 356 Chromatic Dispersion in Optical Fiber Communication Systems......Page 357 Optical Nonlinearities as Factors to be Considered in Dispersion Compensation......Page 359 Dispersion Maps......Page 360 Corrections to Linear Dispersion Maps......Page 361 Fixed Dispersion Compensation......Page 362 Tunable Dispersion Compensation......Page 364 Chromatic Dispersion Monitoring......Page 367 Conclusion......Page 368 Further Reading......Page 369 Contrast Ratio......Page 370 Table of Emissive and Nonemissive Displays......Page 372 The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)......Page 373 The Color CRT......Page 374 Field Emissive Displays (FEDs)......Page 375 Inorganic LED Displays......Page 376 Organic LEDs......Page 377 Thin Film EL (TFEL) Displays......Page 378 Reflective LCD......Page 379 Further Reading......Page 380 Introduction......Page 381 Theoretical Treatment of EIT in a Three-Level Medium......Page 382 Nonlinear Optical Processes......Page 384 Propagation and Wave-Mixing in a Doppler Broadened Medium......Page 385 Nonlinear Optics with a Pair of Strong Coupling Fields in Raman Resonance......Page 386 Pulse Propagation and Nonlinear Optics for Weak CW Fields......Page 387 Further Reading......Page 388 Backscattered Light......Page 389 Elements of a Doppler Lidar......Page 390 Description......Page 391 Applications of Coherent Doppler Lidar......Page 392 Description......Page 394 Heterodyne and Direct-Detection Doppler Trade-Offs......Page 396 Global Wind Measurements......Page 397 Further Reading......Page 398 Underlying Principles......Page 399 Spectral Mixture Analysis......Page 402 Geology......Page 403 Vegetation and the Environment......Page 404 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere......Page 406 Introduction......Page 407 Airborne DIAL Systems......Page 408 Global O3 Measurements......Page 409 Space-Based O3 DIAL System......Page 411 Global H2O Measurements......Page 412 H2O Raman Lidar Systems......Page 413 H2O DIAL Systems......Page 414 Tunable Laser Systems for Point Monitoring......Page 415 Laser Long-Path Measurements......Page 418 Further Reading......Page 419 Introduction......Page 420 Gases......Page 421 Spectral Resolution......Page 422 Scattering Methods......Page 423 An Example Atmospheric RT Model: MODTRAN......Page 424 Sun and Sky Viewing......Page 425 Further Reading......Page 427 Fiber Optics......Page 428 Active Fiber Compatible Components......Page 431 Telecommunications Technology......Page 432 Integrated Optics as a Future of Guided Wave Optics......Page 433 See also......Page 434 Effect of Dispersion on an Optical Signal......Page 435 Material Group Velocity Dispersion......Page 438 Waveguide Group Velocity Dispersion......Page 440 Further Reading......Page 442 Introduction......Page 443 MCVD Process......Page 444 VAD Process......Page 445 Fiber Drawing......Page 446 Fiber Coating......Page 447 Types of Fiber......Page 448 Light Propagation......Page 449 Attenuation......Page 452 Microbending Sensitivity......Page 455 Multimode Fiber Bandwidth for Multimode Fibers......Page 456 Chromatic Dispersion......Page 457 Polarization Mode Dispersion......Page 459 Nonlinear Effects......Page 462 Fiber Geometry Characteristics......Page 464 Numerical Aperture......Page 466 Effective Area......Page 467 Further Reading......Page 468 Linear and Nonlinear Signatures......Page 469 Physical Origin of Optical Nonlinearity......Page 470 Parametric Phenomena in Optical Fibers......Page 471 Four-Wave Mixing......Page 472 Further Reading......Page 473 Introduction......Page 474 Second-Harmonic Generation in Crystals......Page 475 Quasi Phase Matching (QPM)......Page 477 Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)......Page 479 Propagation of a Pulse......Page 481 Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)......Page 482 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)......Page 484 Supercontinuum Generation......Page 486 Conclusions......Page 487 Further Reading......Page 488 Tight Jacket......Page 489 Fiber Identification......Page 490 Strength Member......Page 491 Filling Compounds and Other Components......Page 492 Cable Structures......Page 493 Types and Applications......Page 494 Blown Fiber......Page 495 General Considerations......Page 496 Optical Connectors......Page 498 Branching Devices......Page 499 WDM......Page 500 Other Passive Optical Components......Page 502 Fiber Modes......Page 503 Fiber Grating Theory......Page 504 Photosensitivity......Page 508 Grating Inscription......Page 509 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers......Page 510 Dispersion Compensator......Page 511 Optical Monitors......Page 512 Nonlinear Optics in Fiber Gratings......Page 513 Further Reading......Page 514 Fourier Transform Property of Lens......Page 515 4-f Coherent Optical Processor......Page 517 Spatial Filtering......Page 518 Complex Matched Spatial Filtering......Page 519 Joint Transform Correlator......Page 520 Further Reading......Page 522 The Cardinal Points and Planes of an Optical System......Page 523 Paraxial Matrices......Page 525 Using the Gaussian Constants......Page 526 Nodal Points and Planes......Page 529 Approximations for Thin Lenses......Page 530 The Paraxial System for Design or Analysis......Page 531 Reflectors......Page 532 Introduction......Page 533 Coma......Page 535 Astigmatism......Page 538 Curvature of Field and Distortion......Page 539 Conclusion......Page 540 Single Prisms as Reflectors......Page 541 Double Prism Reflectors......Page 543 Prisms as Instruments......Page 544 Further Reading......Page 545 Introduction......Page 546 Holographic Black Holes......Page 547 Public Display......Page 548 Object Holography......Page 550 Pulsed Lasers......Page 552 Pseudo Holograms......Page 553 Architectural Scale......Page 554 Twenty-First Century Art......Page 556 Further Reading......Page 557 Methodology of Holographic Recording and Replay......Page 558 Holographic Image Quality......Page 562 Underwater Holography......Page 563 Underwater Holographic Cameras......Page 564 The HoloMar System......Page 566 Further Reading......Page 567 Holographic Recording Materials......Page 568 Sensitivity of Photographic and Holographic Materials......Page 570 Processing of Silver Halide Emulsions......Page 571 Bleach Baths......Page 573 Dichromated Gelatin Materials......Page 574 Photopolymer Materials......Page 575 Thermoplastic Materials......Page 576 Bacteriorhodopsin......Page 577 Further Reading......Page 578 Overview......Page 579 Hologram of a Point Object......Page 580 Types of Holograms......Page 581 Recording Materials......Page 582 Application of Holography......Page 583 Further Reading......Page 584 The Development of Color Holography......Page 585 Silver Halide Materials......Page 586 Laser Wavelengths for Color Holograms......Page 587 Setup for Recording Color Holograms......Page 588 Processing of Color Holograms......Page 589 Computer-Generated Color Holograms......Page 590 The Future of Color Holography......Page 591 Further Reading......Page 592 From the Classical Hologram to the Computer-Generated Hologram: CGH......Page 593 From a Diffraction Grating to a Fourier CGH......Page 594 About Some CGH Algorithms......Page 596 Some CGH Applications......Page 598 Further Reading......Page 599 Direct Phase Reconstruction by Digital Holography......Page 600 The Fresnel Approximation......Page 603 Numerical Reconstruction by the Convolution Approach......Page 604 Numerical Reconstruction by the Lensless Fourier Approach......Page 605 Influences of Discretization......Page 606 See also......Page 607 Further Reading......Page 608 Double-Exposure Holographic Interferometry......Page 609 Real-Time Holographic Interferometry......Page 610 Digital Phase Measurement......Page 611 In-Plane Displacement Component Measurement......Page 612 Basic Interferometers for Dynamic Displacement Measurement......Page 613 Real-Time Time-Average Holographic Interferometry......Page 614 Flow Measurement......Page 615 The Dual Illumination Method......Page 616 Holographic Shearing Interferometry......Page 618 Further Reading......Page 619 Interferometric Sensitivity......Page 620 The Principle of Sandwich Holography......Page 621 Examples......Page 622 Introduction to Light-in-flight Recording by Holography......Page 623 Examples of Wavefront Studies......Page 624 Measuring the Shape of 3D Objects......Page 625 Further Reading......Page 626 Description......Page 628 Radiance Field......Page 629 Image Gathering......Page 630 Signal Coding......Page 631 Image Restoration......Page 632 Maximum-Realizable Fidelity F......Page 633 Electro-optical Design......Page 634 Information Rate, Fidelity and Robustness......Page 635 Information Rate and Visual Quality......Page 636 Further Reading......Page 638 Introduction......Page 639 Introduction......Page 648 Fast Corrections: Adaptive Optics......Page 650 Imaging Through the Atmosphere......Page 651 Adaptive System Design......Page 652 Future Development......Page 653 Other Adaptive Optics Applications......Page 654 Introduction......Page 655 Multispectral Imaging......Page 656 Interferometric Hyperspectral Imaging......Page 658 Spectral Resolution......Page 659 Grating-Dispersion Hyperspectral Imaging......Page 660 Software......Page 661 Further Reading......Page 663 Introduction......Page 664 Scattering Cross-Section......Page 665 Absorption Cross-Section......Page 666 Shallow Tissue Imaging Through Selection of Ballistic Photons......Page 667 Imaging in the Snake-Like Regime: Taking Advantage of Time (or Frequency) Gating......Page 669 Opto- (or Photo-)Acoustics......Page 671 Acousto-Optic......Page 672 Introduction......Page 673 History of Infrared Imaging......Page 676 Infrared Imager Performance......Page 677 General Characteristics of Infrared Imagers......Page 678 Testing Infrared Imagers: NETD, MTF, and MRTD (Sensitivity, Resolution and Acuity)......Page 680 Summary......Page 682 Modeling Infrared Imagers......Page 683 Further Reading......Page 684 Interferometric Imaging......Page 685 Introduction......Page 690 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FM-CW) LIDAR......Page 691 Numerical Example......Page 692 Aperture Array......Page 693 Imaging Applications Involving Incoherent Sources......Page 694 Radar Range Equation......Page 695 Applications and Future Directions......Page 696 Introduction......Page 699 Spatially Incoherent Light......Page 701 Synthetic Apertures with Spatially Incoherent Objects......Page 702 Theta Rotating Interferometer......Page 704 The Two Telescopes Interferometer of Labeyrie......Page 705 Photon Density Wave Imaging......Page 706 Forward Problem: Photon Density Waves......Page 707 Inverse Problem and Imaging Algorithm......Page 709 Applications......Page 710 Further Reading......Page 711 Geometrical Optics Transformations......Page 712 Spatial Frequency Content of the 3D Point Spread Function......Page 713 Diffraction Calculation of the 3D Point Spread Function......Page 715 Volume Holographic Imaging......Page 716 Further Reading......Page 720 Imaging and Atmospheric Turbulence......Page 721 Speckle Imaging......Page 724 Blind Deconvolution......Page 725 Deconvolution from Wavefront Sensing......Page 726 Partially Redundant Pupil Masking......Page 727 Further Reading......Page 728 Incandescent Lamps......Page 729 Discharge Lamps......Page 731 Fluorescent Lamps......Page 732 High Intensity Discharge Lamps......Page 735 Further Reading......Page 737 Synchrotrons......Page 738 Insertion Devices......Page 740 Undulator Spectrum......Page 741 Timing Structure......Page 743 See also......Page 744 Introduction......Page 745 Principle of OTDM......Page 746 Packet Interleaved OTDM......Page 747 Optical Sources......Page 749 Mach-Zehnder (M-Z) Interferometers......Page 750 Sagnac Interferometers......Page 752 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)......Page 754 Synchronization - Optical Phased Locked Loops (PLL)......Page 755 OTDM Bit-Error Rate (BER) Performance......Page 756 Further Reading......Page 757 FT Without a Lens......Page 758 Object Before the Lens......Page 759 Serial Correlators......Page 760 Joint Transform Correlators......Page 762 Conclusion......Page 767 Introduction......Page 768 Historical Perspective......Page 769 Nonlinear Optical Element......Page 770 Absorptive Bistability......Page 771 Dispersive Bistability......Page 772 Four-Wave Mixing......Page 773 Optical Shadow Casting (OSC)......Page 774 Discrete Processors: Optical Matrix Processor......Page 775 Analog Optical Computing......Page 776 Further Reading......Page 777 Incoherent Image Formation......Page 778 Incoherent Spatial Filtering......Page 779 Incoherent Complex Matched Spatial Filtering......Page 780 Computed Tomography......Page 781 Further Reading......Page 783 SOA-XGM for Logic......Page 784 Integrated Optic Microring Resonator......Page 785 Further Reading......Page 786 Optical Digital Image Processing......Page 787 The Error Diffusion Algorithm......Page 788 The Hopfield-Type Neural Network......Page 790 The Error Diffusion Filter......Page 791 A Smart Pixel Implementation of the Error Diffusion Neural Network......Page 792 See also......Page 795 Neural Networks - Natural and Artificial......Page 796 Optical Processors......Page 797 Coherent Optical Fourier Transformation......Page 798 Photorefractive Neural Networks......Page 799 Conclusions......Page 800 Further Reading......Page 801 Astronomical Data......Page 802 Angular Resolution......Page 803 Imaging......Page 804 Spectroscopy......Page 805 Spectropolarimetry and Polarimetry......Page 813 Use of Optical Fibers in Astronomy......Page 815 Structure......Page 816 Further Reading......Page 817 Materials......Page 818 Interaction Between Light and Materials......Page 819 Ellipsometry Measurements......Page 820 Single Wavelength Ellipsometry (SWE)......Page 821 Variable Angle Ellipsometry......Page 822 Data Analysis......Page 823 Film Thickness......Page 824 Optical Constants......Page 825 Composition......Page 826 See also......Page 827 Fundamentals of Photometry......Page 828 Photometric Quantities......Page 829 Concepts of Advanced Photometry......Page 831 Primary Standards......Page 832 Secondary Type Measurements......Page 833 List of Units and Nomenclature......Page 836 Introduction......Page 838 Quantifying Scattered Light......Page 839 Angle Resolved Scatterometers......Page 840 TIS Instruments......Page 842 Analyzing Scatter from Surface Roughness......Page 843 Conclusion......Page 844 Prisms......Page 845 Gratings......Page 847 Imaging Spectrometers......Page 850 Further Reading......Page 856 Basic Imaging Theory......Page 857 Reflection at a Spherical Surface......Page 858 Reflector Surfaces......Page 859 Angular Spherical Aberration......Page 861 Chromatic Aberration......Page 862 Refractor Objectives......Page 863 Basic Oculars......Page 864 Reflectors......Page 865 Metrology......Page 866 Astronomical Telescopes......Page 869 Further Reading......Page 871 Plane Parallel Plate......Page 872 Fizeau Interferometer......Page 873 Radial Shear Interferometer......Page 874 Sagnac Interferometer......Page 875 Phase-Shifting Interferometry......Page 876 Further Reading......Page 877 Introduction......Page 878 Interferometer Styles......Page 879 Noise Sources and Interferometer Sensitivity......Page 882 Further Reading......Page 884 Basic Parts of a Phase-Measuring Interferometer......Page 885 Common Interferometer Types......Page 886 Phase Modulation Techniques......Page 887 Ramping Versus Stepping......Page 888 Phase Unwrapping......Page 889 Overview of Phase Measurement Algorithms and Techniques......Page 890 Algorithm Design......Page 891 Spatial Carrier-Frequency Technique......Page 892 Extended Range Phase Measurement Techniques......Page 893 Other Types of Systematic Errors to Consider......Page 894 Further Reading......Page 895 Interference in Thin Film......Page 896 Polarization Microscope......Page 897 White Light Interference......Page 898 Position of Fringes Under Envelope Due to Reflection of Dielectric......Page 899 Changes in Envelope and Fringes Due to Dispersion......Page 900 Controlled Phase Shift of Fringes Under the Envelope - Geometric Phase Shift......Page 901 Surface Topography and Object Structure Measurement......Page 902 Signal Processing of White Light Interferograms......Page 903 Scanner Nonlinearity......Page 904 Film Thickness Measurement......Page 906 Spatial Coherence Effects in the Interference Microscope......Page 907 Further Reading......Page 908 Brief History......Page 909 Characteristics......Page 910 Resonant Energy Transfer......Page 911 Stimulated Emission......Page 912 Optical Resonator......Page 913 Slow Axial Flow Lasers......Page 915 Diffusion Cooled Laser......Page 916 Conclusions......Page 917 Further Reading......Page 919 Background......Page 920 Brief History of Dye Lasers......Page 921 Laser-Pumped Pulsed Dye Lasers......Page 922 Continuous Wave Dye Lasers......Page 924 Multiple-Prism Dispersion Grating Theory......Page 925 Physics and Architecture of Solid-State Dye-Laser Oscillators......Page 926 Xanthenes......Page 928 Conjugated Hydrocarbons......Page 929 Solid-State Laser Dye Matrices......Page 930 Organic Hosts......Page 931 Dye Laser Applications......Page 932 The Future of Dye Lasers......Page 933 Introduction......Page 934 Further Reading......Page 940 Background: Why Excimer Lasers......Page 941 Excimer Laser Fundamentals......Page 944 Discharge Technology......Page 948 See also......Page 950 Introduction......Page 951 Principles of FEL Operation......Page 952 The Quantum-Theory Picture......Page 954 The Classical Picture......Page 957 Principles of FEL Theory......Page 959 The Pierce Dispersion Equation......Page 960 The FEL Gain Regimes......Page 961 Super-Radiance, Spontaneous-Emission and Self Amplified Spontaneous Emission (SASE)......Page 963 Saturation Regime......Page 964 FEL Accelerator Technologies......Page 967 Magnetic Wiggler Schemes......Page 973 FEL Oscillators......Page 974 Copper Vapor Lasers......Page 977 Afterglow Recombination Metal Vapor Lasers......Page 981 Continuous-Wave Metal Ion Lasers......Page 982 History......Page 984 Theory of Operation......Page 985 Operating Characteristics......Page 987 Technology......Page 988 Further Reading......Page 991 Optical Fiber Lasers......Page 992 Fiber Laser Fundamentals......Page 993 Continuous Wave Fiber Lasers......Page 995 Pulsed Fiber Lasers......Page 996 Other Fiber Lasers......Page 1000 Further Reading......Page 1001 Conjugated Polymers......Page 1002 Organic Semiconductor Gain Materials......Page 1003 Measuring Gain......Page 1004 Polymer Laser Resonators......Page 1006 Towards Plastic Diode Lasers......Page 1008 Further Reading......Page 1009 Planar Waveguides......Page 1010 Lasers......Page 1011 Waveguide Laser Materials......Page 1012 Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) PWL......Page 1014 Distributed Feedback (DFB) PWL......Page 1015 PWL Arrays......Page 1016 PWL Stability......Page 1017 Further Reading......Page 1018 Basic Principles......Page 1019 Physics of the Gain Medium......Page 1021 The Resonator......Page 1022 Semiconductor Laser Dynamics......Page 1024 Introduction......Page 1025 Energy Transfers......Page 1026 Photon Avalanche......Page 1027 Up-Conversion from Second-Order Optical Nonlinearity......Page 1029 Energy Transfers......Page 1030 Sequential Two-Photon Absorption......Page 1031 Photon Avalanche......Page 1033 The Self-Frequency Doubling Laser......Page 1034 See also......Page 1035 LASER-INDUCE