Encyclopedia of Marine Biology (12 Volume Set) [Team-IRA]

Contents Preface Chapter 1 Functional Morphology in Sea Turtle Skulls Abstract Introduction Basic Terminology Skull in Sea Turtles Feeding Process and Feeding System Feeding Habits of Each Species Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) Methods Morphological Analysis through Geometric Morphometrics Functional Analysis by Biomechanical Models Example References Chapter 2 Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles Abstract Introduction Ecotoxicology as a Tool for Conservation of Sea Turtles Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles Ecotoxicology Studies Chemical Determination of Metals: Use of Tissue Residues in Sea Turtle Ecotoxicology Oxidative Stress Biomarkers Reduce Glutathione (GSH) Glutathione S-Transferases (GST) Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) Superoxide Dismutases (SODs) Catalase (CAT) Protein Carboxylation (PCO) Lipid Peroxidation (LPO) Antioxidant Capacity (ACAP) Micronucleus Assay Organic Pollutants into Sea Turtles Case Study: Chelonia mydas Ecotoxicology in Brazil Prospects for Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles Acknowledgment References Chapter 3 Sea Turtle Photo-Identification Abstract Introduction Methods Sea Turtle Non-Photographic Identification Methods Sea Turtle Photo-Identification Soft Shelled Sea Turtles Other Sea Turtles Level 1. Database Types of Users User Details Specimen Details Capture Details Level 2. Monitoring System of Cephalic Scale Pattern Level 3. Interface of Use Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Topological Tools for Evaluating the Structural Importance of Sea Turtles in Trophic Networks Abstract Introduction Methods Topological Approach Building the Trophic Network Node Degree (D) Centrality Indices Keystone Index (KI) (Jordán et al. 2006) The Topological Importance Index (TI) (Jordán et al. 2009) Key Player Problem (KPP) Application of Topological Analysis to Evaluate Ecological Role of Sea Turtles Results of Topological Analysis Conclusion References Chapter 5 Research Techniques in the Study of Marine Turtle Strandings Abstract Introduction Defining a Stranding On the Interest of a Marine Turtle Stranding What to Do When Finding a Marine Turtle Stranded on the Beach? Organizing the Response Methods Stranded Marine Turtle Sampling Techniques Stranding Network Beach Monitoring Integrated Databases Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles Scopes and Limitations Data Collection Stranding Location Species Identification Family Dermochelyidae Family Cheloniidae Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Flatback Turtle (Natator depressus) Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) Sex Determination Photography Documentation Tagging State of Decomposition of the Carcasses Morphometrics Sample Collection Live Turtles Dead Turtles Actions on Live Animals, First Aid In Situ External Physical Examination Diagnostic Techniques Examples of Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles Parallel Studies That Can be Conducted Associated to Marine Turtle Strandings (in-Water Studies, Aerial Surveys) Conclusion References Annexes Annex I. Example of Stranding Data Forms (Modified from STSN) Annex II. Basic Field Equipment for Stranding Studies Annex III. Equipment for Necropsy in Facilities Annex IV. Example of Necropsy Data Form (Modified from Work 2000) Chapter 6 Genetics and Conservation of Sea Turtles Abstract Introduction Methods Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles Genetic Studies Microsatellite Analysis (Simple Sequence Repeats - SSRs) PCR-RFLP Analysis (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms) SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Haplotypes DNA Barcodes Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Studies Case of Conservation Genetic for Sea Turtles Dermochelys coriacea: Molecular Data and Its Use on Leatherback Turtle’s Conservation Phylogeography and Mixed Stocks at Foraging Grounds Population Dynamics, Demographic Histories and Estimations of Effective Population Size RMU´s and Conservation Priorities Matings Systems and Multiple Paternity Barcodes and PCR-RFLP to Identify Species Eretmochelys imbricata Caretta caretta Brazilian Rookeries Brazilian Foraging Aggregation Additional Reports: Bycatch and Uncommon Nesting Site Brazilian Demography History Global Population Structure and Phylogeography Hybridization Conservation Perspectives for Caretta caretta Perspectives for Genetic and Conservation of Sea Turtles Conclusion References Chapter 7 Practical Manual on Clinical Cytology and Hematology for Sea Turtle Conservation Abstract Introduction Hematology Methodology Blood Collection in the Field Manual Preparation of Blood Samples Counting Cells Manually Hematocrit Determination Determination of Total Leukocytes and Erythrocytes Recording Cell Measurements Evaluation of Cell Morphology Color Reference of Blood Cell Types Using Diff Quick Results Blood Samples as Reference Values Gulf of Venezuela, Alta Guajira (Montilla et al. 2006) The Wildlife Refuge Aves Island, Venezuela Conclusion and Discussion References Chapter 8 Arachidonic Acid is a Major Fatty Acid in Gonads of Coral Reef Fishes and Improves Larval Survival of Rabbitfish Sigunus gutattus Abstract Introduction 1. Wide Distribution of Arachidonic Acid as Major Fatty Acid Component in Coral Reef Associated Fishes 1.1. Coral Reef Associated, Demersal Fishes 1.2. Tropical Pelagic Fishes 1.3. Possible Origin of ArA in Coral Reef 1.4. Rabbitfish 2. Effects of Dietary Arachidonic Acid Supplementation on Reproductive Performance of Rabbitfish Broodstock 2.1. First Trial 2.2. Second Trial 3. Effects of DHA/Arachidonic Acid-Enriched Rotifers on Survival and Growth of Rabbitfish Fry 3.1. Preliminary Studies 3.2. Materials and Methods 3.3. Survival and Growth Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 9 Proteins Responsive to Variable Temperature Exposure in the Reef-Building Coral Seriatopora hystrix Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods SHVTS Protein Extraction 2D Gel Electrophoresis 1st Dimension-Isoelectric Focusing 2D Gel Electrophoresis 2nd Dimension-SDS-PAGE MS MS Data Analysis Western Blotting Results Differentially Expressed Proteins Uncovered by a 2D + MS-Based Approach RBCL Western Blot Conclusion Acknowledgments Author Contribution Statement References Chapter 10 Arachidonic Acid Distribution in Seaweed, Seagrass, Invertebrates and Dugong in Coral Reef Areas Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Methodology 3. Fatty Acid Composition I. Invertebrates Corals Crustaceans Shells II. Aquatic Plants Seaweed and Seagrass III. Dugong Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 11 Coral Skeletons as a Recorder of Metal Pollution: Environmental Monitoring in the Gulf of Thailand Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Location 2.2. Sampling 2.3. Preparation of CaCO3 Matrix Standard 2.4. LA-ICP-MS Analysis 2.5. Stable Isotopic Analysis 3. Results 3.1. Seawater Temperature, Salinity, and Oxygen Isotope 3.2. Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Coral 3.3. Me/Ca in Coral 4. Discussion 4.1. Salinity and δ18Ow in Seawater, and Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Coral 4.2. B/Ca in Coral 4.3. Ba/Ca in Coral 4.4. V/Ca in Coral 4.5. Cd/Ca in Coral 4.6. Hg/Ca in Coral 4.7. Pb/Ca in Coral Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 12 The Ratio of Constitutive and Reparative Neurogenesis in Pallium of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) Abstract Introduction PCNA Localization in the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury HuCD Localization in the Proliferative Zones and Parenchyma of the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury Conclusion Funding References Chapter 13 Neural Stem Cells in the Cerebellum of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) after Mechanical Injury Abstract Introduction Comparative Aspects of Adult Neural Stem Cell Activity in Amphibians and Fish Proliferation and Migration of Cells in Cerebellum of Fish GFAP, Doublecortine and Other Markers of NSCs in Cerebellum of Fish Conclusion Funding References Chapter 14 Catalase and Peroxidase in Black Sea Teleosts: Evolutionary, Systematical, and Physiological Peculiarities Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Enzyme Activities and Fish Phylogenic Position 3. Biological Peculiarities of Fish 3.1. Early Development and Ageing 3.2. Reproductive Strategy and Gender Peculiarities 3.3. Diet and Food Deprivation 3.4. Swimming Activity 4. Abiotic Conditions 4.1. Ecological Specificity of Abundance 4.2. Salinity 4.3. Pressure and Deep Sea Conditions 4.4. Oxygen Availability 4.5. Temperature 5. Anthropogenic Impact Conclusion References Chapter 15 The Teleost Retina as a Model for Regenerative Medicine Abstract Adaptations of the Fish Eye The Fish Retina Fish Eye Development and Retinogenesis Stem Cell Niches in the Teleost Retina Healthy Retina Ciliary Marginal Zone (CMZ) Müller Glia Injured Retina: Regeneration Therapeutic Applications References Chapter 16 Importance of Benthos in the Trophic Structure of the Ichthyofauna of Los Frailes Reef, Gulf of California, Mexico Abstract Introduction Composition of the Fish Community Abundance Classification of Species According to Their Relative Abundance Trophic Organization Functional Trophic Groups Diagram of Biomass Flow in the Reef Discussion Habitat Structural Complexity Fish Community Composition Trophic Organization of the Fish Community Effect of Benthic Structural Complexity on the Trophic Organization of the Ichthyofauna of the Los Frailes Reef Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 17 Marine Seaweeds of the Yucatan Peninsula: Diversity, Economic Importance and Conservation Abstract Introduction Study Area Results Conservation Acknowledgments References Chapter 18 Benthic Assemblages in South American Intertidal Rocky Shores: Biodiversity, Services, and Threats Abstract Introduction The Intertidal Rocky Shores in South America: Main Features and Associated Biodiversity The Caribbean Colombia Venezuela Trinidad and Tobago The Atlantic Brazil The Northeast: Ceara The Northeast: Sergipe The Northeast: Bahia The Southeast: Espírito Santo The Southeast: São Paulo The South: Paraná and Santa Catarina Uruguay Argentina The Pacific Colombia Ecuador Peru Chile Northern Chile: Iquique, Antofagasta and Copiapó Central-Northern Chile: Coquimbo, Los Vilos and San Antonio Central-Southern Chile: Concepción and Valdivia Southern Chile: Punta Arenas Uses and Threats to the Intertidal Rocky Shores in South America The Caribbean The Atlantic The Pacific Gaps in Our Knowledge and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References Chapter 19 Evaluation of Biomass and Reproductive Aspects of Invasive Algae Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito B.C.S. Mexico Abstract Introduction Ecological and Economic Impact of Marine Invasive Species Impact on Coral Reef Economic Importance Algae Introduced Acanthophora spicifera an Invasive Seaweed Description of Genus Description of the Species Geographical Distribution Floristic Records of Algae Study Area Materials and Methods Results Environmental Conditions General Features and Morphological of Punta Roca Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito Percentage of Wet and Dry Weight Flora and Fauna of Acanthophora spicifera Discussion Conclusion Recommendation Annex References Chapter 20 Environmental Impacts on Marine Benthic Communities in an Industrialized Caribbean Island-Trinidad and Tobago Abstract Introduction Brief Review of Local Benthic Ecological Assessments Environmental Impacts on Macrobenthos in the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (PLIE) Coastal Area Materials and Methods General Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 21 Prediction of Zostera marina Shoot Growth, Leaf Production, Leaf Area and Shoot Weight Using the Sheath Length Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 22 Distribution and Ecology of the Pacific Lobsterette Nephropsis occidentalis Faxon, 1893 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Astacidea), on the Continental Slope Off Western Mexico Abstract Introduction Material and Methods The Mexican Pacific Sampling of Biological Data Sampling of Environmental Data Sediment Sampling and Analysis Data Analyses Population Structure Environmental Variables Drivers of Population Structure Worldwide Distribution Results The Mexican Pacific Population Structure Environmental Variables Drivers of Population Structure Worldwide Distribution Discussion Mexican Pacific Population Structure Environmental Drivers of the Distribution of the Pacific Lobsterette Worldwide Patterns of Distribution Fishery Potential Outlook Acknowledgments References Chapter 23 Sea Turtles as Ecosystem Indicators: Situation in Mexico Abstract Introduction Biodiversity of Sea Turtles in Mexico Threats to Sea Turtles Climate Change Pollution Pesticides Hydrocarbons Heavy Metals Sewage and Garbage Damage Caused by the Lights on Nesting Beaches Challenges References Chapter 24 Similarity in Mollusk Assemblages Associated with Conspicuous Habitat Formers in Northwest México Abstract Introduction Study Site Field Sampling Laboratory Analyses Feeding Habits and Feeding Guilds Data Analysis Results Fauna Composition Similarity and Taxocenosis Structure Discussion Appendix References Chapter 25 A Critique of the Environmental Impact Studies in México Based on Two Study Cases Abstract Introduction Dolphins, Mangroves and El Mogote Marina Azul and the Accumulative and Synergic Impacts Conclusion References Chapter 26 The Key Role of the Species Hediste diversicolor (Polychaeta, Nereididae) in Estuarine Ecosystems Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 3. Population Dynamics of Hediste diversicolor Comparison with Other Estuaries 4. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor 4.1. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the Loire Estuary 4.2. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the Nereis Park Experiment References Chapter 27 Hox-Genes in the Ontogenesis of Polychaetes Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Polychaetes: What Are They? 3. Set and Structure of Hox-Clusters in Polychaetes 4. Expression Patterns of Hox-Genes 4.1. Chaetopterus variopedatus 4.2. Capitella teleta 4.3. Alitta virens and Platynereis dumerilii 5. What Do Polychaetes Tell Us about Urbilateria? 6. Hox-Genes and Larval Development References Chapter 28 Dynamics of the Stress Protein Content in the White Sea Mussel Mytilus edulis L. in Course of Salinity Adaptation Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgment References Chapter 29 Novel Fibrinogenolytic Metalloprotease from the Antarctic Scallop (Adamussium colbecki) Abstract Introduction Conclusion References Chapter 30 Investigation of Marine Biotoxins and Human Toxicity Abstract Abbreviations Impact of the Harmful Algal Blooms in the Marine Ecosystems Human Toxicity of the Marine Biotoxins Methods of Detection of the Marine Biotoxins The Monitoring Programs in Molluscs from the Adriatic Sea, Italy Conclusion References Chapter 31 Natural Products from Marine Sponges: Current Status and Future Potential for Novel Drugs Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Marine Natural Product 3. Milestones in Research on Marine Natural Products 4. Current Marine Pharmaceutical Pipeline 5. Sponges (Porifera) as a Source of Drug Treasure Trove 6. Marine Sponges and Natural Chemical Components 7. Pharmacological Potency of Marine Sponges 7.1. Anti-Oxidant Activity 7.2. Anti-Bacterial Activity 7.3. Anti-Fungal Activity 7.4. Anti-Viral Activity 7.5. Anti-Malarial Activity 7.6. Marine Invertebrates with Anti-Inflammatory Properties 7.7. Anti-Coagulating Activity 7.8. Marine Sponges with Anti-Tumour Properties Cytarabine Halichondrin B Hemiasterlins Discodermolide Spongistatin 1 8. Future Prospects of Sponge-Derived Natural Products in Drug Discovery Conclusion References Chapter 32 Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus) Foraging on Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) Sea Turtle Eggs and Hatchlings Abstract Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 33 Mitigation Strategies for the Reduction of Sea Turtle Bycatch in the Mediterranean Bottom Trawl Fisheries Abstract Introduction Methods Study Area Assessment of Turtle-Trawl Interaction Telemetry Data VMS Data Interaction Index Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Trawl Gear and TED Specifications Study of Gear and TED Performance Catch Analysis Results Identification of Turtle-Trawl Interaction Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Performance Gear Behaviour Catch Efficiency Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 34 Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Kemp's Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys kempi) and Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) Nests in a Beach of the North of Veracruz, Mexico Abstract Introduction Methods Data Recording Nests Distribution per Area Nests Distribution per Site Results Nests Number per Month Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Nests Nest Distribution per Zone (A, B and C) Nests Distribution per Site Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 35 Marine Turtles: Conservation Strategies and Future Research Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Conservation Strategies and Future Research on Reproductive Areas 2.1. Population Genetic Structure Phylogeographic Relationships 2.2. Natal Homing 2.3. Temperature Dependent Sex Determination 2.4. Environmental Conditions Affecting Embryonic Development 3. Conservation Strategies and Future Research on Oceanic Phases 3.1. Migratory Routes and Movements 3.2. Foraging Grounds Conclusion References Chapter 36 Spirorchiidiosis and Other Forms of Parasitosis in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Abstract Introduction Methods The Family Spirorchiidae Spirorchiidiosis in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Spirorchiidiosis in Chelonia mydas Spirorchiidiosis in Eretmochelys imbricata Spirorchiidiosis in Lepidochelys olivacea Parasites in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Parasites in Chelonia mydas Helminths Reported in Green Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Parasites in Eretmochelys imbricata Helminths Reported for the Hawksbill Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil Parasites of Caretta caretta Helminths Reported in the Loggerhead Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil Parasites of Dermochelys coriacea Parasites of Lepidochelys olivacea Challenges for the Future Acknowledgments References Biographical Sketches Chapter 37 Effect of Clays on Removal of Okadaic Acid from Seawater Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Selection of Clays 2.2. Seawater Sampling 2.3. Clay Suspensions Preparation 2.4. Okadaic Acid Analysis 3. Results 4. Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 38 Helminth Diversity of Cetaceans: An Update Abstract Parasitism in Cetaceans Helminths of Cetaceans Acknowledgments References Chapter 39 Influenza Viruses: A Threat to Marine Mammals Populations Abstract Introduction Influenza Outbreaks in Seal and Whale Populations Genetic Background of Marine Mammals Influenza Viruses Marine Mammals and Public Health Conclusion References Chapter 40 Ecological Interdependence in Marine Habitats: Bio-Economic Management of a Spanish Mixed Fishery Abstract Introduction The European Hake and Blue Whiting Mixed Fishery An Applied Management Model Conclusion Acknowledgments References Biographical Sketches Chapter 41 Marine Sponge Compounds with Anti-Inflammatory Activity in 2012–2016; and Their Mechanism of Action Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Marine Sponge’s Anti-Inflammatory Activity 3. Chemical Structures of Compounds Isolated and Their Mechanism of Action 4. Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Bacteria Associated with Marine Sponges 5. Synthetic Compounds from the Marine Sponge Compounds Lead Conclusion References Chapter 42 Trophic Ecology of the Shortfin Mako Isurus oxyrinchus (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) in the Eastern Pacific Ocean Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Methods and Statistical Analyses Applied in the Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.1. Stomach Content Analysis Applied to the Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.1.1. Prey Identification 2.1.2. Cumulative Prey Curves 2.1.3. Diet Analysis 2.1.4. Trophic Overlap 2.1.5. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 2.1.6. Feeding Strategy 2.1.7. Consumption by Sharks of Key Prey Species 2.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis 2.2.1. Sampling and Isotopic Analysis 2.2.2. Trophic Level Based on Isotope Values 2.3. Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus in the Eastern Pacific 2.3.1. Feeding Habits of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.3.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus 3. Feeding Description of Isurus oxyrinchus in the Eastern Pacific Ocean 3.1. Results of Stomach Content Analysis 3.1.1. Central Area “Ecuadorian Pacific” General Description of I. oxyrinchus Caught in the Central Area Prey Identification 3.1.2. Northern and Southern Pacific Areas Prey Identification 3.1.3. Trophic Overlap 3.1.4. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 3.1.5. Feeding Strategy 3.1.6. Consumption of Fish and Squid by Isurus oxyrinchus 3.2. Results of Stable Isotope Analysis 4. Discussion 4.1. Feeding Habits in the Eastern Pacific Ocean 4.2. Variation in Diet in the Three Areas of the Eastern Pacific Ocean 4.3. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 4.4. Feeding Strategy 4.5. Consumption of Fish and Squids by Isurus oxyrinchus 4.6. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 43 Biomarker Response in Black Sea Scorpion Fish Scorpaena porcus to Anthropogenic Impact Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.2. Biochemical Assays Antioxidant Enzyme Activities Aminotransferases Activity Cholinesterase (ChE) Activity Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration TBARS Level Chemiluminescence Analysis Total Soluble Protein Concentration 2.3. Statistical Analysis 3. Results 3.1. Ecological Characteristics of Tested Sites 3.2. Biomarkers Response Antioxidant Enzyme Activity Cholinesterase Activity Aminotransferase Activity TBARS Concentration Chemiluminescence Level Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration 4. Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 44 Aquatic Invasive Species: Additional Steps Could Help Measure Federal Progress in Achieving Strategic Goals* Why GAO Did This Study What GAO Recommends What GAO Found Abbreviations Background Task Force Member Agencies Estimated Expending an Average of about $260 Million Annually to Address Aquatic Invasive Species in Fiscal Years 2012 through 2014 Task Force Member Agencies Conducted a Wide Range of Activities and Identified Several Challenges in Addressing Aquatic Invasive Species Prevention Early Detection and Rapid Response Control and Management Restoration Research Education and Public Awareness Leadership and International Cooperation The Task Force Has Not Taken Key Steps to Measure Progress in Achieving Its Strategic Goals Conclusion Recommendation for Executive Action Agency Comments and Our Evaluation Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology Appendix II: Examples of Aquatic Invasive Species and Their Reported Presence by State, and Common Pathways Appendix III: Aquatic Invasive Species Activities Conducted by Task Force Member Agencies End Notes End Notes for Appendix I Chapter 45 Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Strategic Plan (2013-2017)( Executive Summary Introduction Environmental Harm Economic Harm Harm to Human Health ANS - What Can Be Done? Future Challenges Structure of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Federal and Ex-Officio Members ANSTF Regional Panels ANSTF Committees ANSTF Strategic Plan ANSTF Operational Plan Coordination with Other Federal and State Invasive Species Management Plans Conclusion Goal 1: Coordination - Maximize the Organizational Effectiveness of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Objective 1.1: Strengthen the Coordination Capacity of the ANSTF Objective 1.2: Evaluate the Ability of Statutory Authorities, Regulations, and Programs Necessary to Implement ANSTF Goals and Objectives Objective 1.3: Facilitate the Development and Continued Effectiveness of State and Interstate ANS Management Plans Objective 1.4: Coordinate the Development and Implementation of ANSTF- Approved Species Control and Management Plans and Pathway Management Plans Objective 1.5: Cooperate with Nations That Have Neighboring Waters and Shared Pathways with the United States to Prevent, Detect, and Control ANS Goal 2: Prevention - Develop Strategies to Identify and Prevent the Establishment of New and Slow the Spread of Existing ANS in the Waters of the United States Objective 2.1: Take Steps to Interdict Specific Pathways by Developing and Implementing Guidance and Appropriate Measures Objective 2.2: Facilitate Use of Science-Based Risk Assessment and Screening Procedures to Assess and Prioritize Pathways for the Introduction of ANS or Potential Species of Concern Objective 2.3: Expand Training and Use of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Program into Work Conducted by Natural Resource Managers Goal 3: Early Detection and Rapid Response - Identify and Respond to Aquatic Nuisance Species within a Timely Manner Following Introduction in Order to Prevent Their Establishment and/or Spread Objective 3.1: Facilitate Surveys and Monitoring to Detect ANS Objective 3.2: Make Taxonomic and Ecological Information and Expertise Readily Available Objective 3.3: Increase Public and Industry Involvement in Early Detection and Rapid Response Programs Objective 3.4: Facilitate Development of Rapid Response Contingency Plans Objective 3.5: Build Capacity to Respond Rapidly to Invasions Goal 4: Control and Management - Control Established Aquatic Nuisance Species When Feasible and When the Benefits of Managing the Established Species Outweigh the Costs of Removing Them with Respect to Harm to the Environment, the Economy, and Public ... Objective 4.1: Support and Evaluate ANSTF-Approved Control and Management Plans Objective 4.2: Increase Invasive Species Training for Natural Resource Managers and Leverage Participation Objective 4.3: Evaluate the Benefits and Risks Associated with the Commercial Harvest of ANS as a Means of Control or Eradication Objective 4.4: Encourage an Integrated Pest Management (IPM)25 Approach to Manage Existing ANS Populations Goal 5: Restoration – Protect and Rehabilitate Native Species and Ecosystems by Conducting Habitat Restoration Efforts on Multiple Scales Objective 5.1: Restore Impacted Ecosystems Objective 5.2: Address and Provide Technical Assistance for Invasive Species Management before, during, and after Habitat Restoration Projects Goal 6: Education and Outreach - Increase Awareness Concerning the Threats of Aquatic Nuisance Species, Emphasizing the Impacts, Importance of Prevention and Containment, and Recommendations for Appropriate Domestic and International Actions Objective 6.1: Increase Understanding Among the General Public of the Problems and Impacts Associated with ANS and Actions That Can Be Taken to Prevent and Control ANS in Waters of the United States Objective 6.2: Disseminate ANS Outreach and Technical Guidance Materials to Target Audiences Objective 6.3: Promote the Use of Guidance Documents, Best Management Practices (Bmps)26, and Other Outreach Materials Related to ANS Objective 6.4: Promote Awareness of the ANSTF and Its Activities and Provide Educational Briefings on ANS Threats and Solutions and to Legislators and Other Decision Makers Goal 7: Research - Facilitate Research to Address Environmental, Economic, and Human Health Risks and Impacts Associated with Aquatic Nuisance Species Objective 7.1: Develop and Maintain a List of ANS Research Priorities; Communicate This List to the Scientific Community Objective 7.2: Develop and Maintain Guidance Documents, Protocols, and Best Management Practices (BMPs) Related to ANS Objective 7.3: Track the Progress of Research Activities Funded or Prioritized by the ANSTF Objective 7.4: Support Development of Socio-Economic Research and Methods to Quantify the Economic Impact of ANS Objective 7.5: Support Research on Interdiction Methods for Specific Pathways of ANS30 Objective 7.6: Support Efforts to Identify Gaps and Expand Research Relevant to Control and Eradication Measures to Address ANS That Have Become Established in Waters of the United States Objective 7.7: Encourage Research to Develop Species Invasion-Risk Forecast Tools Objective 7.8: Support Existing Databases and Global Database Networks So National and Worldwide Decision-Support Information for Invasive Species Management Is Accessible, Transparent, and Accurate Goal 8: Funding - Coordinate Federal Agency Budgets to Support the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force’s Priorities and Establish a Clear Process That Links State and Regional Needs in Their Areas of Responsibility Objective 8.1: Secure Dedicated, Long-Term Funding for the ANSTF Strategic Plan Actions Objective 8.2: Optimize Use of Current Funding for ANS Activities by Engaging Potential Resources and Programs Within Federal Agencies and Additional Partners Objective 8.3: Develop a List of ANS Funding Priorities Appendix 1: List of Acronyms End Notes Chapter 46 A New Late Triassic (Warepan: Middle to Late Norian) Orthoconic Nautiloid from New Zealand and New Caledonia Abstract Introduction Systematics Genus Stipamonotis Grant-Mackie, n. gen. Type Derivation of Name Diagnosis Comments Stipamonotis herangiae Grant-Mackie, n. sp. (Figure 4) Derivation of Name Holotype Paratypes Additional Material Diagnosis Description Comments Associated Biota Age Acknowledgments Appendix 1 References Chapter 47 Combined Effects of Ocean Acidification and Salinity on Foraging Behaviour of Intertidal Scavenging Gastropod Nassarius festivus Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Study Organisms Experimental Setup Food Detection Experiment Statistical Analysis Results Food Detection Time Percentag Contents Preface Chapter 1 Functional Morphology in Sea Turtle Skulls Abstract Introduction Basic Terminology Skull in Sea Turtles Feeding Process and Feeding System Feeding Habits of Each Species Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) Methods Morphological Analysis through Geometric Morphometrics Functional Analysis by Biomechanical Models Example References Chapter 2 Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles Abstract Introduction Ecotoxicology as a Tool for Conservation of Sea Turtles Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles Ecotoxicology Studies Chemical Determination of Metals: Use of Tissue Residues in Sea Turtle Ecotoxicology Oxidative Stress Biomarkers Reduce Glutathione (GSH) Glutathione S-Transferases (GST) Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) Superoxide Dismutases (SODs) Catalase (CAT) Protein Carboxylation (PCO) Lipid Peroxidation (LPO) Antioxidant Capacity (ACAP) Micronucleus Assay Organic Pollutants into Sea Turtles Case Study: Chelonia mydas Ecotoxicology in Brazil Prospects for Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles Acknowledgment References Chapter 3 Sea Turtle Photo-Identification Abstract Introduction Methods Sea Turtle Non-Photographic Identification Methods Sea Turtle Photo-Identification Soft Shelled Sea Turtles Other Sea Turtles Level 1. Database Types of Users User Details Specimen Details Capture Details Level 2. Monitoring System of Cephalic Scale Pattern Level 3. Interface of Use Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Topological Tools for Evaluating the Structural Importance of Sea Turtles in Trophic Networks Abstract Introduction Methods Topological Approach Building the Trophic Network Node Degree (D) Centrality Indices Keystone Index (KI) (Jordán et al. 2006) The Topological Importance Index (TI) (Jordán et al. 2009) Key Player Problem (KPP) Application of Topological Analysis to Evaluate Ecological Role of Sea Turtles Results of Topological Analysis Conclusion References Chapter 5 Research Techniques in the Study of Marine Turtle Strandings Abstract Introduction Defining a Stranding On the Interest of a Marine Turtle Stranding What to Do When Finding a Marine Turtle Stranded on the Beach? Organizing the Response Methods Stranded Marine Turtle Sampling Techniques Stranding Network Beach Monitoring Integrated Databases Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles Scopes and Limitations Data Collection Stranding Location Species Identification Family Dermochelyidae Family Cheloniidae Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Flatback Turtle (Natator depressus) Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) Sex Determination Photography Documentation Tagging State of Decomposition of the Carcasses Morphometrics Sample Collection Live Turtles Dead Turtles Actions on Live Animals, First Aid In Situ External Physical Examination Diagnostic Techniques Examples of Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles Parallel Studies That Can be Conducted Associated to Marine Turtle Strandings (in-Water Studies, Aerial Surveys) Conclusion References Annexes Annex I. Example of Stranding Data Forms (Modified from STSN) Annex II. Basic Field Equipment for Stranding Studies Annex III. Equipment for Necropsy in Facilities Annex IV. Example of Necropsy Data Form (Modified from Work 2000) Chapter 6 Genetics and Conservation of Sea Turtles Abstract Introduction Methods Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles Genetic Studies Microsatellite Analysis (Simple Sequence Repeats - SSRs) PCR-RFLP Analysis (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms) SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Haplotypes DNA Barcodes Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Studies Case of Conservation Genetic for Sea Turtles Dermochelys coriacea: Molecular Data and Its Use on Leatherback Turtle’s Conservation Phylogeography and Mixed Stocks at Foraging Grounds Population Dynamics, Demographic Histories and Estimations of Effective Population Size RMU ́s and Conservation Priorities Matings Systems and Multiple Paternity Barcodes and PCR-RFLP to Identify Species Eretmochelys imbricata Caretta caretta Brazilian Rookeries Brazilian Foraging Aggregation Additional Reports: Bycatch and Uncommon Nesting Site Brazilian Demography History Global Population Structure and Phylogeography Hybridization Conservation Perspectives for Caretta caretta Perspectives for Genetic and Conservation of Sea Turtles Conclusion References Chapter 7 Practical Manual on Clinical Cytology and Hematology for Sea Turtle Conservation Abstract Introduction Hematology Methodology Blood Collection in the Field Manual Preparation of Blood Samples Counting Cells Manually Hematocrit Determination Determination of Total Leukocytes and Erythrocytes Recording Cell Measurements Evaluation of Cell Morphology Color Reference of Blood Cell Types Using Diff Quick Results Blood Samples as Reference Values Gulf of Venezuela, Alta Guajira (Montilla et al. 2006) The Wildlife Refuge Aves Island, Venezuela Conclusion and Discussion References Chapter 8 Arachidonic Acid is a Major Fatty Acid in Gonads of Coral Reef Fishes and Improves Larval Survival of Rabbitfish Sigunus gutattus Abstract Introduction 1. Wide Distribution of Arachidonic Acid as Major Fatty Acid Component in Coral Reef Associated Fishes 1.1. Coral Reef Associated, Demersal Fishes 1.2. Tropical Pelagic Fishes 1.3. Possible Origin of ArA in Coral Reef 1.4. Rabbitfish 2. Effects of Dietary Arachidonic Acid Supplementation on Reproductive Performance of Rabbitfish Broodstock 2.1. First Trial 2.2. Second Trial 3. Effects of DHA/Arachidonic Acid-Enriched Rotifers on Survival and Growth of Rabbitfish Fry 3.1. Preliminary Studies 3.2. Materials and Methods 3.3. Survival and Growth Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 9 Proteins Responsive to Variable Temperature Exposure in the Reef-Building Coral Seriatopora hystrix Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods SHVTS Protein Extraction 2D Gel Electrophoresis 1st Dimension-Isoelectric Focusing 2D Gel Electrophoresis 2nd Dimension-SDS-PAGE MS MS Data Analysis Western Blotting Results Differentially Expressed Proteins Uncovered by a 2D + MS-Based Approach RBCL Western Blot Conclusion Acknowledgments Author Contribution Statement References Chapter 10 Arachidonic Acid Distribution in Seaweed, Seagrass, Invertebrates and Dugong in Coral Reef Areas Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Methodology 3. Fatty Acid Composition I. Invertebrates Corals Crustaceans Shells II. Aquatic Plants Seaweed and Seagrass III. Dugong Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 11 Coral Skeletons as a Recorder of Metal Pollution: Environmental Monitoring in the Gulf of Thailand Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Location 2.2. Sampling 2.3. Preparation of CaCO3 Matrix Standard 2.4. LA-ICP-MS Analysis 2.5. Stable Isotopic Analysis 3. Results 3.1. Seawater Temperature, Salinity, and Oxygen Isotope 3.2. Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Coral 3.3. Me/Ca in Coral 4. Discussion 4.1. Salinity and δ18Ow in Seawater, and Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Coral 4.2. B/Ca in Coral 4.3. Ba/Ca in Coral 4.4. V/Ca in Coral 4.5. Cd/Ca in Coral 4.6. Hg/Ca in Coral 4.7. Pb/Ca in Coral Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 12 The Ratio of Constitutive and Reparative Neurogenesis in Pallium of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) Abstract Introduction PCNA Localization in the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury HuCD Localization in the Proliferative Zones and Parenchyma of the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury Conclusion Funding References Chapter 13 Neural Stem Cells in the Cerebellum of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) after Mechanical Injury Abstract Introduction Comparative Aspects of Adult Neural Stem Cell Activity in Amphibians and Fish Proliferation and Migration of Cells in Cerebellum of Fish GFAP, Doublecortine and Other Markers of NSCs in Cerebellum of Fish Conclusion Funding References Chapter 14 Catalase and Peroxidase in Black Sea Teleosts: Evolutionary, Systematical, and Physiological Peculiarities Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Enzyme Activities and Fish Phylogenic Position 3. Biological Peculiarities of Fish 3.1. Early Development and Ageing 3.2. Reproductive Strategy and Gender Peculiarities 3.3. Diet and Food Deprivation 3.4. Swimming Activity 4. Abiotic Conditions 4.1. Ecological Specificity of Abundance 4.2. Salinity 4.3. Pressure and Deep Sea Conditions 4.4. Oxygen Availability 4.5. Temperature 5. Anthropogenic Impact Conclusion References Chapter 15 The Teleost Retina as a Model for Regenerative Medicine Abstract Adaptations of the Fish Eye The Fish Retina Fish Eye Development and Retinogenesis Stem Cell Niches in the Teleost Retina Healthy Retina Ciliary Marginal Zone (CMZ) Müller Glia Injured Retina: Regeneration Therapeutic Applications References Chapter 16 Importance of Benthos in the Trophic Structure of the Ichthyofauna of Los Frailes Reef, Gulf of California, Mexico Abstract Introduction Composition of the Fish Community Abundance Classification of Species According to Their Relative Abundance Trophic Organization Functional Trophic Groups Diagram of Biomass Flow in the Reef Discussion Habitat Structural Complexity Fish Community Composition Trophic Organization of the Fish Community Effect of Benthic Structural Complexity on the Trophic Organization of the Ichthyofauna of the Los Frailes Reef Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 17 Marine Seaweeds of the Yucatan Peninsula: Diversity, Economic Importance and Conservation Abstract Introduction Study Area Results Conservation Acknowledgments References Chapter 18 Benthic Assemblages in South American Intertidal Rocky Shores: Biodiversity, Services, and Threats Abstract Introduction The Intertidal Rocky Shores in South America: Main Features and Associated Biodiversity The Caribbean Colombia Venezuela Trinidad and Tobago The Atlantic Brazil The Northeast: Ceara The Northeast: Sergipe The Northeast: Bahia The Southeast: Espírito Santo The Southeast: São Paulo The South: Paraná and Santa Catarina Uruguay Argentina The Pacific Colombia Ecuador Peru Chile Northern Chile: Iquique, Antofagasta and Copiapó Central-Northern Chile: Coquimbo, Los Vilos and San Antonio Central-Southern Chile: Concepción and Valdivia Southern Chile: Punta Arenas Uses and Threats to the Intertidal Rocky Shores in South America The Caribbean The Atlantic The Pacific Gaps in Our Knowledge and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References Chapter 19 Evaluation of Biomass and Reproductive Aspects of Invasive Algae Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito B.C.S. Mexico Abstract Introduction Ecological and Economic Impact of Marine Invasive Species Impact on Coral Reef Economic Importance Algae Introduced Acanthophora spicifera an Invasive Seaweed Description of Genus Description of the Species Geographical Distribution Floristic Records of Algae Study Area Materials and Methods Results Environmental Conditions General Features and Morphological of Punta Roca Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito Percentage of Wet and Dry Weight Flora and Fauna of Acanthophora spicifera Discussion Conclusion Recommendation Annex References Chapter 20 Environmental Impacts on Marine Benthic Communities in an Industrialized Caribbean Island-Trinidad and Tobago Abstract Introduction Brief Review of Local Benthic Ecological Assessments Environmental Impacts on Macrobenthos in the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (PLIE) Coastal Area Materials and Methods General Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 21 Prediction of Zostera marina Shoot Growth, Leaf Production, Leaf Area and Shoot Weight Using the Sheath Length Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 22 Distribution and Ecology of the Pacific Lobsterette Nephropsis occidentalis Faxon, 1893 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Astacidea), on the Continental Slope Off Western Mexico Abstract Introduction Material and Methods The Mexican Pacific Sampling of Biological Data Sampling of Environmental Data Sediment Sampling and Analysis Data Analyses Population Structure Environmental Variables Drivers of Population Structure Worldwide Distribution Results The Mexican Pacific Population Structure Environmental Variables Drivers of Population Structure Worldwide Distribution Discussion Mexican Pacific Population Structure Environmental Drivers of the Distribution of the Pacific Lobsterette Worldwide Patterns of Distribution Fishery Potential Outlook Acknowledgments References Chapter 23 Sea Turtles as Ecosystem Indicators: Situation in Mexico Abstract Introduction Biodiversity of Sea Turtles in Mexico Threats to Sea Turtles Climate Change Pollution Pesticides Hydrocarbons Heavy Metals Sewage and Garbage Damage Caused by the Lights on Nesting Beaches Challenges References Chapter 24 Similarity in Mollusk Assemblages Associated with Conspicuous Habitat Formers in Northwest México Abstract Introduction Study Site Field Sampling Laboratory Analyses Feeding Habits and Feeding Guilds Data Analysis Results Fauna Composition Similarity and Taxocenosis Structure Discussion Appendix References Chapter 25 A Critique of the Environmental Impact Studies in México Based on Two Study Cases Abstract Introduction Dolphins, Mangroves and El Mogote Marina Azul and the Accumulative and Synergic Impacts Conclusion References Chapter 26 The Key Role of the Species Hediste diversicolor (Polychaeta, Nereididae) in Estuarine Ecosystems Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 3. Population Dynamics of Hediste diversicolor Comparison with Other Estuaries 4. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor 4.1. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the Loire Estuary 4.2. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the Nereis Park Experiment References Chapter 27 Hox-Genes in the Ontogenesis of Polychaetes Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Polychaetes: What Are They? 3. Set and Structure of Hox-Clusters in Polychaetes 4. Expression Patterns of Hox-Genes 4.1. Chaetopterus variopedatus 4.2. Capitella teleta 4.3. Alitta virens and Platynereis dumerilii 5. What Do Polychaetes Tell Us about Urbilateria? 6. Hox-Genes and Larval Development References Chapter 28 Dynamics of the Stress Protein Content in the White Sea Mussel Mytilus edulis L. in Course of Salinity Adaptation Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgment References Chapter 29 Novel Fibrinogenolytic Metalloprotease from the Antarctic Scallop (Adamussium colbecki) Abstract Introduction Conclusion References Chapter 30 Investigation of Marine Biotoxins and Human Toxicity Abstract Abbreviations Impact of the Harmful Algal Blooms in the Marine Ecosystems Human Toxicity of the Marine Biotoxins Methods of Detection of the Marine Biotoxins The Monitoring Programs in Molluscs from the Adriatic Sea, Italy Conclusion References Chapter 31 Natural Products from Marine Sponges: Current Status and Future Potential for Novel Drugs Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Marine Natural Product 3. Milestones in Research on Marine Natural Products 4. Current Marine Pharmaceutical Pipeline 5. Sponges (Porifera) as a Source of Drug Treasure Trove 6. Marine Sponges and Natural Chemical Components 7. Pharmacological Potency of Marine Sponges 7.1. Anti-Oxidant Activity 7.2. Anti-Bacterial Activity 7.3. Anti-Fungal Activity 7.4. Anti-Viral Activity 7.5. Anti-Malarial Activity 7.6. Marine Invertebrates with Anti-Inflammatory Properties 7.7. Anti-Coagulating Activity 7.8. Marine Sponges with Anti-Tumour Properties Cytarabine Halichondrin B Hemiasterlins Discodermolide Spongistatin 1 8. Future Prospects of Sponge-Derived Natural Products in Drug Discovery Conclusion References Chapter 32 Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus) Foraging on Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) Sea Turtle Eggs and Hatchlings Abstract Methods Results Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 33 Mitigation Strategies for the Reduction of Sea Turtle Bycatch in the Mediterranean Bottom Trawl Fisheries Abstract Introduction Methods Study Area Assessment of Turtle-Trawl Interaction Telemetry Data VMS Data Interaction Index Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Trawl Gear and TED Specifications Study of Gear and TED Performance Catch Analysis Results Identification of Turtle-Trawl Interaction Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Performance Gear Behaviour Catch Efficiency Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 34 Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Kemp's Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys kempi) and Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) Nests in a Beach of the North of Veracruz, Mexico Abstract Introduction Methods Data Recording Nests Distribution per Area Nests Distribution per Site Results Nests Number per Month Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Nests Nest Distribution per Zone (A, B and C) Nests Distribution per Site Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 35 Marine Turtles: Conservation Strategies and Future Research Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Conservation Strategies and Future Research on Reproductive Areas 2.1. Population Genetic Structure Phylogeographic Relationships 2.2. Natal Homing 2.3. Temperature Dependent Sex Determination 2.4. Environmental Conditions Affecting Embryonic Development 3. Conservation Strategies and Future Research on Oceanic Phases 3.1. Migratory Routes and Movements 3.2. Foraging Grounds Conclusion References Chapter 36 Spirorchiidiosis and Other Forms of Parasitosis in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Abstract Introduction Methods The Family Spirorchiidae Spirorchiidiosis in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Spirorchiidiosis in Chelonia mydas Spirorchiidiosis in Eretmochelys imbricata Spirorchiidiosis in Lepidochelys olivacea Parasites in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Parasites in Chelonia mydas Helminths Reported in Green Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil Parasites in Eretmochelys imbricata Helminths Reported for the Hawksbill Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil Parasites of Caretta caretta Helminths Reported in the Loggerhead Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil Parasites of Dermochelys coriacea Parasites of Lepidochelys olivacea Challenges for the Future Acknowledgments References Biographical Sketches Chapter 37 Effect of Clays on Removal of Okadaic Acid from Seawater Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Selection of Clays 2.2. Seawater Sampling 2.3. Clay Suspensions Preparation 2.4. Okadaic Acid Analysis 3. Results 4. Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 38 Helminth Diversity of Cetaceans: An Update Abstract Parasitism in Cetaceans Helminths of Cetaceans Acknowledgments References Chapter 39 Influenza Viruses: A Threat to Marine Mammals Populations Abstract Introduction Influenza Outbreaks in Seal and Whale Populations Genetic Background of Marine Mammals Influenza Viruses Marine Mammals and Public Health Conclusion References Chapter 40 Ecological Interdependence in Marine Habitats: Bio-Economic Management of a Spanish Mixed Fishery Abstract Introduction The European Hake and Blue Whiting Mixed Fishery An Applied Management Model Conclusion Acknowledgments References Biographical Sketches Chapter 41 Marine Sponge Compounds with Anti-Inflammatory Activity in 2012–2016; and Their Mechanism of Action Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Marine Sponge’s Anti-Inflammatory Activity 3. Chemical Structures of Compounds Isolated and Their Mechanism of Action 4. Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Bacteria Associated with Marine Sponges 5. Synthetic Compounds from the Marine Sponge Compounds Lead Conclusion References Chapter 42 Trophic Ecology of the Shortfin Mako Isurus oxyrinchus (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) in the Eastern Pacific Ocean Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Methods and Statistical Analyses Applied in the Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.1. Stomach Content Analysis Applied to the Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.1.1. Prey Identification 2.1.2. Cumulative Prey Curves 2.1.3. Diet Analysis 2.1.4. Trophic Overlap 2.1.5. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 2.1.6. Feeding Strategy 2.1.7. Consumption by Sharks of Key Prey Species 2.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis 2.2.1. Sampling and Isotopic Analysis 2.2.2. Trophic Level Based on Isotope Values 2.3. Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus in the Eastern Pacific 2.3.1. Feeding Habits of Isurus oxyrinchus 2.3.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus 3. Feeding Description of Isurus oxyrinchus in the Eastern Pacific Ocean 3.1. Results of Stomach Content Analysis 3.1.1. Central Area “Ecuadorian Pacific” General Description of I. oxyrinchus Caught in the Central Area Prey Identification 3.1.2. Northern and Southern Pacific Areas Prey Identification 3.1.3. Trophic Overlap 3.1.4. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 3.1.5. Feeding Strategy 3.1.6. Consumption of Fish and Squid by Isurus oxyrinchus 3.2. Results of Stable Isotope Analysis 4. Discussion 4.1. Feeding Habits in the Eastern Pacific Ocean 4.2. Variation in Diet in the Three Areas of the Eastern Pacific Ocean 4.3. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level 4.4. Feeding Strategy 4.5. Consumption of Fish and Squids by Isurus oxyrinchus 4.6. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 43 Biomarker Response in Black Sea Scorpion Fish Scorpaena porcus to Anthropogenic Impact Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.2. Biochemical Assays Antioxidant Enzyme Activities Aminotransferases Activity Cholinesterase (ChE) Activity Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration TBARS Level Chemiluminescence Analysis Total Soluble Protein Concentration 2.3. Statistical Analysis 3. Results 3.1. Ecological Characteristics of Tested Sites 3.2. Biomarkers Response Antioxidant Enzyme Activity Cholinesterase Activity Aminotransferase Activity TBARS Concentration Chemiluminescence Level Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration 4. Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 44 Aquatic Invasive Species: Additional Steps Could Help Measure Federal Progress in Achieving Strategic Goals* Why GAO Did This Study What GAO Recommends What GAO Found Abbreviations Background Task Force Member Agencies Estimated Expending an Average of about $260 Million Annually to Address Aquatic Invasive Species in Fiscal Years 2012 through 2014 Task Force Member Agencies Conducted a Wide Range of Activities and Identified Several Challenges in Addressing Aquatic Invasive Species Prevention Early Detection and Rapid Response Control and Management Restoration Research Education and Public Awareness Leadership and International Cooperation The Task Force Has Not Taken Key Steps to Measure Progress in Achieving Its Strategic Goals Conclusion Recommendation for Executive Action Agency Comments and Our Evaluation Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology Appendix II: Examples of Aquatic Invasive Species and Their Reported Presence by State, and Common Pathways Appendix III: Aquatic Invasive Species Activities Conducted by Task Force Member Agencies End Notes End Notes for Appendix I Chapter 45 Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Strategic Plan (2013-2017)( Executive Summary Introduction Environmental Harm Economic Harm Harm to Human Health ANS - What Can Be Done? Future Challenges Structure of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Federal and Ex-Officio Members ANSTF Regional Panels ANSTF Committees ANSTF Strategic Plan ANSTF Operational Plan Coordination with Other Federal and State Invasive Species Management Plans Conclusion Goal 1: Coordination - Maximize the Organizational Effectiveness of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Objective 1.1: Strengthen the Coordination Capacity of the ANSTF Objective 1.2: Evaluate the Ability of Statutory Authorities, Regulations, and Programs Necessary to Implement ANSTF Goals and Objectives Objective 1.3: Facilitate the Development and Continued Effectiveness of State and Interstate ANS Management Plans Objective 1.4: Coordinate the Development and Implementation of ANSTF- Approved Species Control and Management Plans and Pathway Management Plans Objective 1.5: Cooperate with Nations That Have Neighboring Waters and Shared Pathways with the United States to Prevent, Detect, and Control ANS Goal 2: Prevention - Develop Strategies to Identify and Prevent the Establishment of New and Slow the Spread of Existing ANS in the Waters of the United States Objective 2.1: Take Steps to Interdict Specific Pathways by Developing and Implementing Guidance and Appropriate Measures Objective 2.2: Facilitate Use of Science-Based Risk Assessment and Screening Procedures to Assess and Prioritize Pathways for the Introduction of ANS or Potential Species of Concern Objective 2.3: Expand Training and Use of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Program into Work Conducted by Natural Resource Managers Goal 3: Early Detection and Rapid Response - Identify and Respond to Aquatic Nuisance Species within a Timely Manner Following Introduction in Order to Prevent Their Establishment and/or Spread Objective 3.1: Facilitate Surveys and Monitoring to Detect ANS Objective 3.2: Make Taxonomic and Ecological Information and Expertise Readily Available Objective 3.3: Increase Public and Industry Involvement in Early Detection and Rapid Response Programs Objective 3.4: Facilitate Development of Rapid Response Contingency Plans Objective 3.5: Build Capacity to Respond Rapidly to Invasions Goal 4: Control and Management - Control Established Aquatic Nuisance Species When Feasible and When the Benefits of Managing the Established Species Outweigh the Costs of Removing Them with Respect to Harm to the Environment, the Economy, and Public ... Objective 4.1: Support and Evaluate ANSTF-Approved Control and Management Plans Objective 4.2: Increase Invasive Species Training for Natural Resource Managers and Leverage Participation Objective 4.3: Evaluate the Benefits and Risks Associated with the Commercial Harvest of ANS as a Means of Control or Eradication Objective 4.4: Encourage an Integrated Pest Management (IPM)25 Approach to Manage Existing ANS Populations Goal 5: Restoration – Protect and Rehabilitate Native Species and Ecosystems by Conducting Habitat Restoration Efforts on Multiple Scales Objective 5.1: Restore Impacted Ecosystems Objective 5.2: Address and Provide Technical Assistance for Invasive Species Management before, during, and after Habitat Restoration Projects Goal 6: Education and Outreach - Increase Awareness Concerning the Threats of Aquatic Nuisance Species, Emphasizing the Impacts, Importance of Prevention and Containment, and Recommendations for Appropriate Domestic and International Actions Objective 6.1: Increase Understanding Among the General Public of the Problems and Impacts Associated with ANS and Actions That Can Be Taken to Prevent and Control ANS in Waters of the United States Objective 6.2: Disseminate ANS Outreach and Technical Guidance Materials to Target Audiences Objective 6.3: Promote the Use of Guidance Documents, Best Management Practices (Bmps)26, and Other Outreach Materials Related to ANS Objective 6.4: Promote Awareness of the ANSTF and Its Activities and Provide Educational Briefings on ANS Threats and Solutions and to Legislators and Other Decision Makers Goal 7: Research - Facilitate Research to Address Environmental, Economic, and Human Health Risks and Impacts Associated with Aquatic Nuisance Species Objective 7.1: Develop and Maintain a List of ANS Research Priorities; Communicate This List to the Scientific Community Objective 7.2: Develop and Maintain Guidance Documents, Protocols, and Best Management Practices (BMPs) Related to ANS Objective 7.3: Track the Progress of Research Activities Funded or Prioritized by the ANSTF Objective 7.4: Support Development of Socio-Economic Research and Methods to Quantify the Economic Impact of ANS Objective 7.5: Support Research on Interdiction Methods for Specific Pathways of ANS30 Objective 7.6: Support Efforts to Identify Gaps and Expand Research Relevant to Control and Eradication Measures to Address ANS That Have Become Established in Waters of the United States Objective 7.7: Encourage Research to Develop Species Invasion-Risk Forecast Tools Objective 7.8: Support Existing Databases and Global Database Networks So National and Worldwide Decision-Support Information for Invasive Species Management Is Accessible, Transparent, and Accurate Goal 8: Funding - Coordinate Federal Agency Budgets to Support the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force’s Priorities and Establish a Clear Process That Links State and Regional Needs in Their Areas of Responsibility Objective 8.1: Secure Dedicated, Long-Term Funding for the ANSTF Strategic Plan Actions Objective 8.2: Optimize Use of Current Funding for ANS Activities by Engaging Potential Resources and Programs Within Federal Agencies and Additional Partners Objective 8.3: Develop a List of ANS Funding Priorities Appendix 1: List of Acronyms End Notes Chapter 46 A New Late Triassic (Warepan: Middle to Late Norian) Orthoconic Nautiloid from New Zealand and New Caledonia Abstract Introduction Systematics Genus Stipamonotis Grant-Mackie, n. gen. Type Derivation of Name Diagnosis Comments Stipamonotis herangiae Grant-Mackie, n. sp. (Figure 4) Derivation of Name Holotype Paratypes Additional Material Diagnosis Description Comments Associated Biota Age Acknowledgments Appendix 1 References Chapter 47 Combined Effects of Ocean Acidification and Salinity on Foraging Behaviour of Intertidal Scavenging Gastropod Nassarius festivus Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Study Organisms Experimental Setup Food Detection Experiment Statistical Analysis Results Food Detection Time Percenta