دانشنامه هورمون‌ها [۳ جلد]

The Encyclopedia of Hormones is a comprehensive reference work on hormones in vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant systems. It covers all aspects of hormones: their chemical structure and biological synthesis the major physiological systems in which they operate the cellular and subcellular site of their action the nature of the signal transduction mechanisms used in the hormone's action and the biological consequences of an excess or deficiency of the hormone. Each contributor is an expert in his or her field and has been recruited by one of 14 Associate Editors. The 300 articles that comprise this encyclopedia are arranged alphabetically. Each entry begins with a glossary of key terms that are compiled into a complete glossary for the entire work. Additionally, each entry includes 10-15 recent references to provide the reader with an entry into the scientific literature. The Encyclopedia of Hormones is sure to be a valuable reference work for students and professional researchers interested in any aspect of the control of biological systems by hormonal signals. * The only source available with such comprehensive descriptions of hormones, their receptors, and their mechanisms of action * Full coverage including vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant hormones * Includes the chemistry, synthesis, secretion, and biological actions of hormones * Thorough coverage of signal transduction mechanisms as they relate to hormones * Contributions from over 500 experts in the study of hormones * Written to be accesssible to non-endocrinologists sdarticle(0).pdf 1 sdarticle(1).pdf 2 sdarticle(2).pdf 8 sdarticle(3).pdf 11 sdarticle(4).pdf 13 Abscisic Acid 13 Introduction 13 Structure and occurrence 13 Structure 13 Occurrence 13 Synthesis 13 Alternative Pathways 15 Degradation 15 Transport 15 Roles of ABA 15 ABA Triggers Stomatal Closure During Water Stress 15 ABA Promotes Seed Maturation and Dormancy 16 ABA Inhibits Germination and Seedling Growth 16 ABA Controls Root and Shoot Growth 17 ABA Mediates Wound Responses 18 The ABA signal transduction pathway 18 Receptor(s) 18 Downstream Signaling Events 18 Regulation of Gene Expression by ABA 20 Novel Genetic Screens 21 Biotechnological features 21 Conclusions 22 Glossary 22 Further Reading 22 sdarticle(5).pdf 23 Activating and Inactivating Receptor Mutations 23 Introduction 24 Activating mutations 24 Nuclear Receptors 24 Cell Membrane Receptors 24 Inactivating mutations 26 Nuclear Receptors 26 Cell Membrane Receptors 27 Dominant negative mutations 28 Summary 29 Glossary 29 Further Reading 30 sdarticle(6).pdf 31 Activin Receptor Signaling 31 Activin receptors 32 Type II Receptors 32 Type I Receptors 33 Smads as intracellular mediators 33 Structural Features of Smads 34 Signal Transduction via Smads 34 Modulation of activin signaling 34 Inhibition of Signaling at the Cell Surface 34 Modulation in Cytoplasm 35 Termination of Signaling in the Nucleus 36 Summary 36 Glossary 36 Further Reading 36 sdarticle(7).pdf 38 Activins 38 Introduction 38 Expression and biosynthesis of activins 38 Signaling of activin ligands 39 Activins in physiology 39 Biological Actions of Activins 39 Knockout and Knock-in Mouse Models 40 Assays for Activins 41 Overlapping Functions of Activins and Other Ligands in the TGF- Superfamily 41 Follistatin-Binding Proteins 42 Activins in pathology and disease 42 Pregnancy 42 Inflammation 42 Kidney/Renal Ischemia 42 Bone 43 Tissue and Wound Repair 43 Cancer 43 Clinical applications 43 Summary 43 Glossary 43 Further Reading 44 sdarticle(8).pdf 45 Adipokinetic Hormones and Carbohydrate Metabolism 45 Carbohydrate mobilization 45 Hormonal activation of glycogen phosphorylase 45 Hormonal signal transduction 47 Cyclic AMP and G-Proteins 47 Calcium 47 Inositol Phosphates 48 Signaling Crosstalk 48 Glossary 49 Further Reading 50 sdarticle(9).pdf 51 Adipokinetic Hormones and Lipid Mobilization 51 Introduction 51 Adipokinetic hormone signal transduction in insect fat body 51 Effect of adipokinetic hormone on lipid mobilization 52 Adipokinetic hormone-induced lipophorin conversions 53 Glossary 54 Further Reading 55 sdarticle(10).pdf 56 Adipokinetic Hormones: Structure and Biosynthesis 56 Introduction 56 Primary structure of adipokinetic hormones 56 Biosynthesis of adipokinetic hormones 58 Storage, release, and inactivation of adipokinetic hormones 59 Glossary 59 Further Reading 60 sdarticle(11).pdf 61 Adrenal Cortex Role in Medullary Synthesis of PNMT 61 Introduction 61 The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex-anatomy and development 62 Synthesis of adrenomedullary catecholamines 63 Glucocorticoids and PNMT synthesis 64 Glucocorticoids and PNMT synthesis during development 64 Summary 65 Glossary 65 Further Reading 65 sdarticle(12).pdf 67 Adrenocorticosteroids and Cancer 67 ADRENOCORTICAL TUMORS 67 PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROMES 67 MANAGEMENT OF TUMOR SEQUELAE 67 TREATMENT OF CANCER 68 MANAGEMENT OF SEQUELAE FROM CANCER TREATMENT 68 Glossary 69 Further Reading 69 sdarticle(13).pdf 70 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) and Other Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) Peptides 70 ACTH AND POMC PEPTIDES 71 PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTH AND POMC-DERIVED PEPTIDES 72 REGULATION OF ACTH AND POMC-DERIVED PEPTIDES 73 SUMMARY 74 Glossary 74 Further Reading 74 sdarticle(14).pdf 76 Amino Acid and Nitric Oxide Control of the Anterior Pituitary 76 Hypothalamic control of pituitary gland function 76 Hypothalamic Releasing and Inhibiting Hormones 76 Tropic Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland 77 The Hypothalamic GnRH Pulse Generator 77 Hypothalamic GABA neurons and the neuroendocrine regulation of LH secretion 78 Hypothalamic GABA Neurons 78 GABA Regulation of GnRH Pulse Generator Function 80 Hypothalamic glutamate neurons and the neuroendocrine regulation of LH secretion 81 Hypothalamic Glu Neurons 81 Glu Regulation of GnRH Pulse Generator Function 82 Hypothalamic nitric oxide neurons and the neuroendocrine regulation of LH secretion 82 Hypothalamic NO Neurons 82 NO Regulation of GnRH Pulse Generator Function 83 The role of gaba, glutamate, and nitric oxide neurons in the neuroendocrine regulation of other anterior pituitary tropic hormo 84 Glossary 84 Further Reading 85 sdarticle(15).pdf 86 Amphiregulin 86 Introduction 86 Structure and processing of AR 87 Selected aspects of AR signaling 88 Regulation of AR expression 91 Biological roles for AR 92 AR as an Autocrine Growth Factor 92 AR as a Morphogen 92 Summary 92 Glossary 93 Further Reading 93 sdarticle(16).pdf 94 Androgen Effects in Mammals 94 Testosterone secretion, transport, and metabolism 95 Testosterone Secretion 95 Androgen Transport in the Body 96 Testosterone Metabolism 96 Testosterone as a prohormone 96 Mechanism of androgen’s action 97 Testosterone’s effects on reproductive organs 98 Testosterone and the Prostate 98 Testosterone and Spermatogenesis 99 Testosterone’s Effects on the Epididymis 99 Androgen’s effects on nonreproductive body systems 99 Androgen’s Effects on Bone 99 Androgen and Body Composition-Effects on Muscle and Fat Metabolism 99 Testosterone’s Effects on Intermediary Metabolism and Cardiovascular Risk 100 Androgen’s Effects on the Skin 100 Androgen’s Effects on Hematopoiesis, the Coagulation System, and the Vascular System 101 Androgens and Plasma Lipids and Cardiovascular Risk 101 Testosterone’s effects on behavior 101 Androgen’s Effects on Sexual Function 101 Testosterone’s Effects on Nonreproductive Behaviors 102 Testosterone replacement in androgen-deficient men 103 Testosterone Esters 103 Testosterone Transdermal Systems 103 Oral Testosterone Formulations 105 Novel Androgen Formulations under Development 105 Anabolic effects of androgens in patients with chronic illnesses and age-related frailty 105 Glossary 106 Further Reading 106 sdarticle(17).pdf 108 Androgen Receptor Crosstalk with Cell Signaling Pathways 108 Steroid receptors and nonsteroidal activation 108 Peptide Growth Factors and Androgen Receptor Function 109 Androgen receptor activation and protein kinase a signaling pathway 111 Regulation of androgen receptor activity by pleiotropic compounds 111 Wide spectrum of androgen receptor activators 112 Glossary 113 Further Reading 113 sdarticle(18).pdf 114 Androgen Receptor Structure and Function 114 Biologically active androgens 114 Mechanisms of androgen regulation of gene expression 115 Domain structure and interactions of the androgen receptor 115 NH2-Terminal Region 116 DNA-Binding Domain and Hinge Region 116 Ligand-Binding Domain 117 Interaction Between NH2- and Carboxyl-Terminal Regions 117 Androgen receptor mutations associated with disease 118 Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome 118 Kennedy’s Disease 118 Prostate Cancer 119 Androgen receptor antagonists and agonists in the environment 119 Summary 120 Glossary 120 Further Reading 121 sdarticle(19).pdf 122 Androgen Receptor-Related Pathology 122 Introduction 122 Phenotypic spectrum of androgen insensitivity 122 Characterization of AR Defects: Biochemical Studies 123 Structure of the AR 123 AR mutation types 123 Interruption of the AR Open Reading Frame 123 Mutations in the DBD of the AR 125 Mutations in the AR LBD 125 Mutations That Result in the Synthesis of Decreased Levels of AR 127 Additional Perspectives on the Function of Mutant ARs (Interaction of Termini) 127 AR mutations, function, and clinical phenotype 127 Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy 129 Summary 130 Acknowledgment 130 Glossary 130 Further Reading 131 sdarticle(20).pdf 132 Androgen Receptors and Prostate Cancer 132 Introduction 132 Changes in the androgen receptor gene 133 Amplification of the Androgen Receptor Gene 133 Point Mutations Producing Superactive Androgen Receptors 133 Point Mutations Generating a Promiscuous Receptor Protein That Is Activated by Ligands Other Than Androgen 134 Inactivating Mutations of the Androgen Receptor 134 Androgen Receptor Polymorphisms That Modulate Transcriptional Activation 134 Changes in the receptor protein 135 Intracellular Changes That Influence Androgen Receptor Sensitivity or Protein Stability 135 Changes in interacting factors that modulate receptor function 135 Co-activator or Co-repressor Modulation of Androgen Action in Advanced Prostate Cancer 135 Ligand-Independent Activation of Androgen Receptor 135 Changes in steroid bioavailability 135 Altered Steroid Bioavailability or Circulating Levels 135 Alternative routes to growth stimulation 135 Activation of Growth-Stimulating Signaling Pathways with the Ability to Bypass Androgen Receptor-Regulated Growth and Different 135 Summary 136 Glossary 136 Further Reading 136 sdarticle(21).pdf 137 Androgens: Pharmacological Use and Abuse 137 Introduction 137 Pharmacology 138 Oral Testosterone 138 Transdermal Testosterone 140 Intramuscular Testosterone 141 Testosterone Subcutaneous Implants 141 Sublingual Testosterone 141 Androgen use 142 Treatment of Adult Male Hypogonadism 142 Treatment of Aging Males 144 Treatment of Delayed Puberty in Boys 144 Treatment of Osteoporosis 144 Treatment of Hereditary Angioneurotic Edema 145 Treatment of Hematological Disorders 145 Micropenis and Microphallus 145 Experimental Use of Androgens 145 Androgen abuse 146 Glossary 147 Further Reading 147 sdarticle(22).pdf 149 Angiogenesis 149 Introduction 149 Formation of blood vessels 149 Blood vessel composition 150 Angiogenic growth factors 151 Molecular mechanisms in blood vessel formation 152 Clinical therapies to suppress or stimulate angiogenesis 153 Perspectives 153 Glossary 153 Further Reading 153 sdarticle(23).pdf 155 Angiotensin II Receptor Signaling 155 Introduction 155 Angiotensin II receptor subtypes 156 Coupling mechanisms 156 Intracellular effectors coupled to AT1 receptors 156 Phospholipases 156 The Calcium Messenger System 157 Protein Kinase C 158 Kinase Cascades 158 Adenylyl Cyclase 159 Signaling through the AT2 receptor subtype 159 Phosphoprotein Phosphatases 159 Nitric Oxide Synthase 159 Phospholipase A2 159 Summary 160 Glossary 160 Further Reading 160 sdarticle(24).pdf 162 Angiotensins 162 Introduction 162 Alternate biosynthetic pathways and additional angiotensin peptides 163 Tissue sources of angiotensin peptides 163 Brain and Pituitary 163 Heart and Blood Vessels 164 Kidney 164 Adrenal Gland 164 Reproductive Organs 164 Concept of a hybrid circulating/tissue RAS 164 Proposed tissue-specific roles of angiotensin peptides 165 Conclusion 166 Glossary 166 Further Reading 167 sdarticle(25).pdf 168 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Glucocorticoids 168 Introduction 168 Gene regulation by glucocorticoid hormones 168 Nongenomic effects 169 Endogenous glucocorticoids as anti-inflammatory agents 170 Glucocorticoids and specific cytokines 171 Glucocorticoid repression of genes involved in inflammatory responses 172 Mechanisms involved in glucocorticoid repression of NF-B 172 Glucocorticoids and T-helper cell subsets 175 Glucocorticoids as therapeutic agents 175 Adverse effects of glucocorticoid treatment 176 Development of GR ligands that dissociate activities 176 Acknowledgments 176 Glossary 176 Further Reading 177 sdarticle(26).pdf 178 Anti-Mullerian Hormone 178 Introduction 179 AMH: the hormone 179 AMH receptors 180 Biological actions of AMH 180 Regulation of AMH production 181 Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome 182 Clinical applications of AMH 182 Summary 184 Glossary 184 Further Reading 185 sdarticle(27).pdf 186 Apoptosis 186 Cellular events in apoptosis 187 Detection methods 187 Biochemical aspects 188 Glossary 189 Further Reading 189 sdarticle(28).pdf 190 Apoptosis Gene Knockouts 190 Overview of apoptosis 190 Apoptosis gene knockouts and the mammary gland 192 Apoptosis gene knockouts and the ovary 195 Glossary 197 Further Reading 198 sdarticle(29).pdf 199 Apoptosis, Glucocorticoid-Induced 199 Mechanism of glucocorticoid action 200 GC-evoked apoptosis in reproductive tissues 200 Effects of GCs on bone turnover 200 GC-mediated regulation of thymocyte selection and leukocyte apoptosis 201 Mechanisms of GC-evoked thymocyte apoptosis 201 Alterations in Gene Expression 202 GC-Mediated Activation of Signaling Pathways 202 Protease Activation 203 Mitochondrial Events 203 Summary 203 Glossary 204 Further Reading 204 sdarticle(30).pdf 205 Appetite Regulation, Neuronal Control 205 Brain regions involved in appetite regulation 205 Hypothalamus 205 Nucleus of the Solitary Tract 206 Other Brain Regions 206 Leptin and insulin 206 NPY and melanocortin system 207 Neuropeptide Y 207 Melanocortins 207 Pro-Opiomelanocortin and Neuropeptide Y Neurons 208 Orexigenic factors 209 Melanin-Concentrating Hormone 209 Orexins (Hypocretins) 209 Galanin 209 Endogenous Opioids 209 Ghrelin 210 Endogenous Cannabinoids 210 Dopamine 211 Other Orexigenic Factors 211 Anorexigenic factors 211 Glucagon-like Peptide 1 211 Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript 211 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone 211 Serotonin 211 Noradrenaline 212 Cholecystokinin 212 Other Anorexigenic Factors 212 Summary 212 Glossary 213 Further Reading 213 sdarticle(31).pdf 214 Aromatase and Estrogen Insufficiency 214 Introduction 215 Aromatase deficiency in humans 216 The aromatase knockout mouse 217 Conclusions 220 Acknowledgments 220 Glossary 220 Further Reading 220 sdarticle(32).pdf 222 Auxin 222 History, structures, and applications 222 Biochemistry 223 Techniques 223 IAA Biosynthesis 223 IAA Degradation and Inactivation 226 IAA Conjugation 226 Polar auxin transport 226 Physiological and developmental roles 227 Auxin and Embryogenesis 227 Auxin and Vascular Development 228 Auxin and Root Development 228 Auxin and Lateral Roots 228 Auxin and Apical Meristem Function 228 Auxin and Control of Branching 228 Auxin and Fruit Development 229 Auxin and Elongation Growth 229 Auxin and Tropisms 229 IAA Interactions with Other Hormones 230 Involvement of IAA in Microorganisms’ Association with Plants 230 Auxin signal transduction 230 Auxin-Binding Proteins 230 Auxin-Induced Genes: The Aux/IAA Genes 231 Auxin-Response Factors 231 Auxin and Membranes 231 Ubiquitin Pathway of Protein Degradation 232 Protein Kinases and Auxin Signal Transduction 232 Summary 233 Glossary 233 Further Reading 233 sdarticle(33).pdf 234 Bombesin-like Peptides 234 Introduction 234 Amphibian bombesin-like peptides 234 Receptors for bombesin-like peptides 236 Gastrin-releasing peptide 237 Distribution 237 Central and Peripheral Functions of GRP 238 GRP and Appetite 238 GRP in Normal and Neoplastic Lung 238 Neuromedin B 239 Distribution 239 Central and Peripheral Functions of NMB 239 BRS-3 239 Central and Peripheral Functions of BRS-3 240 Summary 240 Glossary 240 Further Reading 240 sdarticle(34).pdf 242 Bone Morphogenetic Proteins 242 Discovery of BMPs 242 Chemical structure of BMPs 243 Receptors for BMPs 243 Signal transduction pathway 243 Disorders associated with BMPs 244 Null mutations of BMP ligands and receptors 244 Physiologic roles of BMPs 245 BMPs as potential therapies 245 Glossary 246 Further Reading 246 sdarticle(35).pdf 247 Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor 247 Introduction 248 Structure 248 Signaling 248 Localization, transport, and release 249 BDNF and development 249 BDNF gene regulation 249 BDNF and synaptic plasticity 249 Behavioral and disease associations 250 Learning and Memory 250 Neurodegenerative Diseases 250 Epilepsy 250 Pain 250 Depression 251 Summary 251 Glossary 251 Further Reading 251 sdarticle(36).pdf 253 Brassinosteroids 253 Introduction 253 Structural features and physiological activities 253 Biosynthesis and metabolism 254 Signal perception and molecular responses 257 Glossary 258 Further Reading 258 sdarticle(37).pdf 259 Calcitonin 259 Introduction 259 Chemistry 259 Biosynthesis 260 Sites of Production 260 Calcitonin Gene Products 261 Metabolism 261 Biological Actions 262 Bone Actions of Calcitonin 262 Renal Actions of Calcitonin 262 Central Actions of Calcitonin 263 Other Actions of Calcitonin 263 Mechanisms of action 264 Receptors 264 Receptor Isoforms 264 CTR Signaling 266 Receptor Regulation 267 Summary 268 Glossary 268 Further Reading 269 sdarticle(38).pdf 270 Calcium Signaling 270 Introduction 271 Receptor-controlled calcium mobilization 271 Receptor-controlled voltage-sensitive calcium influx 272 Direct Modulation of Voltage-Gated Calcium Influx 273 Indirect Modulation of Voltage-Gated Calcium Influx 274 Calcium mobilization through ryanodine receptor channels 275 Calcium influx through extracellular ligand-gated channels 275 Calcium signaling patterns 276 Localized Calcium Signals 276 Global Calcium Signals 277 Oscillatory vs Nonoscillatory Calcium Signals 277 Intraorganelle Calcium Signals 277 Intercellular Calcium Waves 278 Calcium-controlled cellular macromolecules and processes 278 Calcium-Controlled Enzymes 278 Calcium-Controlled Channels 278 Fertilization, Development, and Apoptosis 278 Exocytosis 279 Nuclear Functions 279 Mitochondrial Functions 279 Conclusions 279 Glossary 280 Further Reading 280 sdarticle(39).pdf 282 Calmodulin 282 Calcium: a regulatory ion 282 Discovery of calmodulin 282 Calmodulin genomics 283 Ca2+-modulated molecular anatomy 283 Target sites for calmodulin binding 283 Discrimination of the Ca2+-calmodulin signal 284 Ca2+-Calmodulin regulation of ion conductances 284 Ca2+-Calmodulin regulation of transcription 285 Summary 285 Glossary 286 Further Reading 286 sdarticle(40).pdf 287 Cancer Cells and Progrowth/Prosurvival Signaling 287 Introduction 287 Growth factors and their receptors 287 GF Signaling 287 Paracrine/autocrine peptides 288 GPCR (Heptahelical) Receptor Family 288 GTP-binding proteins 289 Major progrowth/prosurvival signaling pathways 290 Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathway 290 JAK/Stat Signaling Pathway 291 al 292 Akt in Cell Survival Signaling 293 Crosstalk between signaling pathways 294 Tumor escape from host defense 295 Summary 295 Glossary 295 Further Reading 295 sdarticle(41).pdf 297 CC, C, and CX3C Chemokines1 297 Introduction 297 CC chemokines 299 Structural Features 299 CC Chemokines with a Role in Homeostasis of the Adaptive Immune System 300 CC Chemokines with Pro-inflammatory Roles in Adaptive Immunity 300 C and CX3C chemokines 304 XCL1 (Lymphotactin ) and XCL2 (Lymphotactin )-Chromosome 1 304 CX3CL1 (Fractalkine)-Chromosome 16 304 Acknowledgment 305 Glossary 305 Further Reading 305 sdarticle(42).pdf 306 Cholecystokinin (CCK) 306 Introduction 306 Molecular forms 306 Distribution 307 CCK receptors 307 Cholecystokinin release 307 Biological actions of CCK 308 Clinical uses of cholecystokinin 309 Glossary 309 Further Reading 309 sdarticle(43).pdf 311 Co-activators and Corepressors for the Nuclear Receptor Superfamily 311 Introduction 311 The Nuclear Receptor Superfamily 311 Type I and Type II Nuclear Receptors 311 Discovery of Nuclear Receptor Coregulators 312 Nuclear receptor co-activators 313 SRC Family of Co-activators 313 CBP/p300 315 E3 Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases: E6-AP and RPF-1 315 Protein Methyltransferases: CARM1 and PRMTs 315 SRA 315 TRAPs/DRIPs 315 Nuclear receptor corepressors 316 N-CoR and SMRT 316 Other Corepressors 316 Summary/perspectives 316 Glossary 317 Further Reading 317 sdarticle(44).pdf 318 Colony-Stimulating Factor-1 (CSF-1) 318 Introduction 319 Csf-1 genomic organization, gene expression, biosynthesis, and structure 319 Csf-1 receptor, signal transduction, and cellular response 321 Csf-1 biology 322 Csf-1 and the CSF-1R in diseases 325 Neoplasms 325 Atherosclerosis 326 Glomerulonephritis 326 Alzheimer’s Disease 326 Other Diseases 326 Potential Therapeutic Applications 326 Summary 327 Acknowledgments 327 Glossary 327 Further Reading 328 sdarticle(45).pdf 329 Corpus Luteum in Primates 329 Introduction 329 Development of the corpus luteum 330 Function of the corpus luteum 332 Regression of the corpus luteum 333 Rescue of the corpus luteum 334 Summary and clinical relevance 336 Glossary 337 Further Reading 337 sdarticle(46).pdf 339 Corpus Luteum: Regression and Rescue 339 Overview of the luteal phase 340 The role of LH in luteal function 341 LH secretion and the regression of the corpus luteum 341 Luteal responsiveness to LH 341 Rescue of the corpus luteum during early pregnancy 342 Cellular mechanisms involved in the regression and rescue of the primate corpus luteum 342 Glossary 343 Further Reading 343 sdarticle(47).pdf 344 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) 344 Introduction 344 Anatomic distribution 344 Gene and protein structure 345 Regulation of expression 345 Regulation of CRH secretion 346 Receptors 346 Signal transduction 346 CRH-binding protein 347 Role in physiology 347 Endocrine System 347 Gastrointestinal System 348 Immune System 348 Autonomic Nervous System 348 Behavioral Effects 348 Reproductive System 349 Fetal Development 349 Pathophysiology 350 CRH Excess 350 CRH Deficiency 350 CRH-related peptides 350 Urocortin 350 Urocortin II 351 Urocortin III 351 Further Reading 351 sdarticle(48).pdf 353 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Pharmacology 353 Introduction 353 CRH structure and gene expression 353 Localization 353 Structure and Peptide Processing 354 Determinants of Affinity 355 CRH receptors 1 and 2 356 Genetics 356 Expression 356 Structure 357 Binding Affinity 357 Determinants of Affinity 357 CRH-binding protein 358 Discovery 358 Localization 358 Genetics 358 Processing 358 Structure 358 Binding Affinity 358 Determinants of Affinity 358 Urocortin, urocortin II, and urocortin III 359 Localization 359 Genetics and Structure 359 Binding Affinity 359 Urocortins II and III 359 Conclusion 360 Glossary 360 Further Reading 360 sdarticle(49).pdf 362 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Signaling 362 Introduction 362 CRH receptors 363 Adenylyl cyclase, cAMP, and protein kinases 364 PKA 366 PKC 367 PKB/Akt 367 Calcium signaling 367 Mitogen-activated protein kinases 368 cGMP 370 Extracellular factors that regulate CRH receptor signaling 370 Summary 372 Acknowledgments 372 Glossary 372 Further Reading 373 sdarticle(50).pdf 375 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone, Stress, and the Immune System 375 Introduction 375 Stress-activated pathways 375 Immune system 376 HPA activation and immune effects 377 Inflammation 377 Leukocyte Populations 377 Leukocyte Function 377 HPA-independent effects on immunity 378 Effects of SNS Activation 378 Direct Effects of CRH 378 Conclusions and perspectives 379 Glossary 379 Further Reading 379 sdarticle(51).pdf 380 Cripto 380 Introduction 380 The EGF-CFC family in embryonic development 381 Biological effects of EGF-CFC proteins in mammalian cells 381 CR-1 receptor and downstream signaling pathways 382 Expression of CR-1 in human carcinomas and premalignant lesions 383 Glossary 384 Further Reading 384 sdarticle(52).pdf 385 Crosstalk of Nuclear Hormone Receptors with STAT Factors 385 Introduction 386 Transcriptional Regulation by Nuclear Receptors as Ligand-Dependent Transcription Factors and as Cofactors 386 Stat signaling pathway 386 Estrogen receptor plus Stat5b 387 Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors plus Stat5b 387 Glucocorticoid receptor plus Stat1 and Pu.1 388 Glucocorticoid receptor plus Stat3 389 Glucocorticoid receptor plus Stat5 390 Conclusions 390 Glossary 391 Further Reading 391 sdarticle(53).pdf 392 Crustacean Endocrine Systems 392 Introduction 393 Ecdysteroids and the control of crustacean molting 394 The Molt Cycle 394 The Ecdysteroids 394 The Y-Organ and Its Regulation 396 Ecdysteroid Receptors 396 Methyl farnesoate, a crustacean juvenile hormone 396 Neuroendocrine compounds 397 Pericardial Organs 397 The Sinus Gland 397 Pigment-Effector Hormones 397 The CHH Family of Neuroendocrine Peptides 400 Androgenic gland hormone 401 Summary 402 Glossary 402 Further Reading 402 sdarticle(54).pdf 404 CXC Chemokines 404 Introduction 404 Classification 404 Structural biology 405 Signaling pathways 406 Inflammatory CXC chemokines 406 CXCL8 and Related ELR CXC Chemokines in Innate Immunity 406 Platelet-Specific Chemokines CXCL4 and CXCL7 409 CXCL15 and Innate Immunity 410 CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11: Non-ELR Inflammatory CXC Chemokines in Adaptive Immunity 410 Homeostatic CXC chemokines 411 CXCL12 411 CXCL13 412 CXCL14 412 CXCL16 412 CXC chemokines and angiogenesis 412 Viral CXC chemokines 413 Summary 414 Glossary 414 Further Reading 414 sdarticle(55).pdf 416 Cytokines and Anterior Pituitary Function 416 Introduction 416 Interleukin-1 416 Interleukin-2 417 Interleukin-6 417 Transforming Growth Factor- 417 Tumor Necrosis Factor 417 Interferons 417 Cytokines and the Pituitary Gland 417 Effects of cytokines on the HPA axis 417 The HPA Axis 417 IL-1 Action on the Adrenal Cortex 418 IL-1 Action on the Anterior Pituitary 418 IL-1 Action via the Hypothalamus 418 Other Cytokines 419 Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I 420 Thyroid-stimulating hormone 421 Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone 421 Prolactin 423 Summary 423 Glossary 424 Further Reading 424 sdarticle(56).pdf 426 Cytokinins 426 Introduction 426 Structure of natural and synthetic cytokinins 426 Cytokinin biosynthesis and metabolism 427 Modification of the Adenine Ring 428 Modification of the N6-Isoprenoid Side Chain 428 Cytokinin signaling 429 CK Receptors Are Histidine Protein Kinase 429 Cytokinin Signaling Involves Histidine Phosphotransfer Proteins and Response Regulators 430 Biological roles 431 Cell Division 431 Cell Differentiation 432 en Metabolism 432 Conclusions 433 Glossary 433 Further Reading 433 sdarticle(57).pdf 434 Decidualization 434 Introduction 434 Morphological changes 434 Functions of the decidua 435 Endometrial receptivity and sensitization 435 Leukemia Inhibitory Factor 436 Calcitonin 436 HOX Genes 436 Other Genes 437 Local mediators of decidualization 437 Prostaglandins 437 Growth Factors and Cytokines 439 Summary 440 Glossary 440 Further Reading 440 sdarticle(58).pdf 441 Defensins 441 Introduction 442 Classification and structure 442 Cell sources and distribution 444 Genes and their expression, posttranslational processing, and regulation 445 Activities and mode of action 446 Antimicrobial Activity 446 Chemotactic Activity 447 Antagonistic Activity for Adrenocorticotropic Hormone 447 Glossary 447 Further Reading 448 sdarticle(59).pdf 449 Deiodinases 449 Introduction 449 Type I deiodinase 450 The D1 Gene 450 D1 Expression and Physiological Role 452 Regulation of D1 Activity 452 Type II deiodinase 452 The D2 Gene 452 D2 Expression and Physiological Role 453 Regulation of D2 Activity 453 Type III deiodinase 453 D3 Expression and Physiological Role 454 Summary 454 Glossary 454 Further Reading 455 sdarticle(60).pdf 456 Diabetes Type 1 (Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus) 456 Introduction 456 History 457 Epidemiology 457 Etiology 458 Genetic Factors 458 Environmental Factors 459 Pathogenesis and immunological abnormalities 460 Humoral Immunopathophysiology 460 Cellular Immunopathophysiology 461 Clinical course 461 Patient Presentation 461 Natural History 462 Diagnosis and Treatment 462 Future Directions 463 Glossary 463 Further Reading 463 sdarticle(61).pdf 465 Diabetes Type 2 (Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus) 465 Introduction: definition of type 2 diabetes mellitus 465 Physiology 465 Anatomy 465 Regulators of Islet Function 465 Insulin and Glucagon Action 466 Pathophysiology 467 Syndrome of Type 2 Diabetes 467 Type 2 vs Type 1 Diabetes: Comparisons and Contrasts 467 Other Causes of Type 2 Diabetes 467 Gestational Diabetes 468 Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young 468 Relative Roles of Insulin Secretory Abnormalities and Insulin Resistance 468 Glucose Toxicity 469 Diagnostic testing 469 Secondary complications 469 Treatment 470 Glossary 471 Further Reading 471 sdarticle(62).pdf 472 Dihydrotestosterone, Active Androgen Metabolites and Related Pathology 472 Introduction 473 DHT and the concept of active metabolites 473 Steroid 5-reductase: two genes/two enzymes 474 Steroid 5-reductase type 2 deficiency 474 Benign prostatic hyperplasia and the development of 5-reductase inhibitors 475 Other applications of 5-reductase inhibitors 476 Remaining questions 477 Glossary 477 Further Reading 477 sdarticle(63).pdf 478 Diuretic Hormones and the Regulation of Water Balance in Insects 478 Excretory organs 478 Source of hormones 478 Structure 479 Targets and transducers 479 Summary of effects 480 Glossary 481 Further Reading 481 sdarticle(64).pdf 482 Drosophila Neuropeptides 482 Introduction 482 The Drosophila genome 483 Numbers of Genes 483 Identifying Neuropeptide Genes 483 Identifying Neuropeptide Biosynthetic Enzyme Genes 483 Identifying Neuropeptide Receptor Genes 483 Behavioral neuropeptides 483 Ecdysial Behavior: Ecdysis-Triggering Hormone and Eclosion Hormone 484 Circadian Locomotion: Pigment-Dispersing Factor 484 Developmental neuropeptides 485 Example: Insulin 485 Homeostatic neuropeptides 486 Water Balance and Diuretic Hormones 486 Neuropeptide biosynthesis 487 Proteolytic Cleavage 487 Amidation 488 Neuropeptide Receptors 490 Drosophila Peptide GPCRs Are Closely Related to Those of Vertebrate Peptide GPCRs 490 Drosophila Peptide GPCRs Are Distantly Related to Those of Vertebrate Peptide GPCRs 490 Summary 491 Glossary 491 Further Reading 491 sdarticle(65).pdf 492 Eating Disorders 492 Introduction 492 Prevalence, incidence, and prognosis 492 Psychopathology 493 Endocrine and physical effects 493 Reproduction 493 Adipose Tissue 494 Other Hormonal and Physical Effects 494 Neurotransmitters 494 Peptides 494 The Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Dopamine and Noradrenalin 495 Serotonin 496 Treatment 496 Evaluation of Treatment 496 Treatment with Serotonin Agonists 497 Causes 497 Summary 498 Glossary 498 Further Reading 498 sdarticle(66).pdf