Encyclopedia of Food and Health

Encyclopedia of Food and Health (2015) 978-0-12-384947-2 Volume 1: A-Che 1 Front Cover 1 Encyclopedia of Food and Health 4 Copyright 5 Editors-In-Chief 6 Editorial Advisory Board 8 How to Use The Encyclopedia 18 Introduction 20 Volume 1 Table of Contents 22 A 28 Acesulfame-K 28 Acidophilus Milk 33 Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants 42 Acids: Properties and Determination 46 Acrylamide 51 Adipose Tissue: Structure and Function of Brown Adipose Tissue 57 Adipose Tissue: White Adipose Tissue Structure and Function 62 Adolescent Nutrition 70 Aerated Foods 78 Aeromonas 88 Aflatoxin: A Global Public Health Problem 95 Agglomeration 100 Alcohol: Metabolism and Health Effects 109 Alcohol: Properties and Determination 115 Alkaloids: Properties and Determination 124 Alkaloids: Toxicology and Health Effects 133 Allergies: Public Health 142 Aluminum: The Toxicology of 149 Aluminum: Properties, Presence in Food and Beverages, Fate in Humans, and Determination 155 Amaranth 162 Amino Acids: Determination 168 Amino Acids: Metabolism 176 Anemia: Causes and Prevalence 183 Anemia: Prevention and Dietary Strategies 191 Annonaceous Fruits 196 Antibiotics and Drugs: Drug-Nutrient Interactions 201 Antibiotics and Drugs: Residue Determination 219 Antinutritional Factors in Legume Seeds: Characteristics and Determination 238 Antioxidants: Characterization and Analysis 248 Antioxidants: Role on Health and Prevention 254 Appetite Control in Humans: A Psychobiological Approach 201 Apples 266 Arsenic: Properties and Determination 276 Arsenic: Toxicology and Health Effects 283 Ascorbic Acid: Physiology and Health Effects 293 Ascorbic Acid: Properties, Determination and Uses 302 Authenticity of Food 312 Avocado 321 B 328 Bacillus cereus and Other Bacillus sp. Causing Foodborne Poisonings, Detection of 328 Bacillus: Occurrence 334 Bacteriocins 339 Bananas and Plantains 347 Barley 355 Beef 359 Beer: Fermentation 366 Beer: History and Types 372 Beer: Raw Materials and Wort Production 382 Berries and Related Fruits 391 Beverage: Health Effects 399 Beverage: Patterns of Consumption 408 Bifidobacteria in Foods: Health Effects 415 Bioactive Peptides in Foods 422 Bioavailability of Nutrients 428 Biofilms 434 Biogenic Amines 443 Biogenic Amines: Toxicology and Health Effect 451 Biosensors 457 Biscuits, Cookies, and Crackers: Chemistry and Manufacture 464 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products 472 Boron 478 Brandy and Cognac: Consumption, Sensory and Health Effects 483 Brandy and Cognac: Manufacture and Chemical Composition 489 Brassica: Characteristics and Properties 496 Bread: Breadmaking Processes 505 Bread: Chemistry of Baking 511 Bread: Dough Mixing and Testing Operations 517 Bread: Types of Bread 527 Browning: Enzymatic Browning 535 Browning: Non-enzymatic browning 542 Buffalo Milk 549 Butter: Manufacture 556 Butter: Properties and Analysis 562 C 570 Cadmium: Properties and Determination 570 Cadmium: Toxicology 577 Caffeine: Characterization and Properties 583 Caffeine: Consumption and Health Effects 600 Cakes: Types of Cakes 606 Calcium: Physiology 46 Calcium: Properties and Determination 33 Campylobacter: Health Effects and Toxicity 62 Campylobacter: Properties and Occurrence 57 Campylobacter: Species Detection 636 Cancer: Diet in Cancer Prevention 641 Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery 648 Canning: Process of Canning 655 Caramel: Methods of Manufacture 660 Caramel: Properties and Analysis 663 Carbohydrate: Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism 670 Carcinogenic: Carcinogenic Substances in Food 677 Carcinogens: Identification of Carcinogens 109 Carotenoids: Occurrence, Properties and Determination 689 Carotenoids: Physiology 696 Casein and Caseinate: Methods of Manufacture 702 Cashew Nuts 709 Cassava: The Nature and Uses 713 Cellulose 720 Cereals: Dietary Importance 729 Cereals: Storage 738 Cereals: Types and Composition 744 Chapatis and Related Products 750 Cheese: Chemistry and Microbiology 761 Cheese: Composition and Health Effects 767 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties 774 Cheese: Types of Cheese – Medium 781 Cheese: Types of Cheeses – Hard 789 Cheese: Types of Cheeses – Soft 794 Volume 2: Che-Foo 801 Front Cover 801 Encyclopedia of food and health 804 Copyright 805 Editors-In-Chief 806 Editorial Advisory Board 808 How to Use The Encyclopedia 818 Introduction 820 Volume 2 Table of Contents 822 Chemometrics 828 Introduction 828 Chemical Data: Types and Representation 828 Experimental Design 828 Exploratory Analysis 830 Calibration 832 Classification 834 A Continually Increasing Toolbox 835 Further Reading 836 Cherries (Prunus spp.): The Fruit and Its Importance 837 Introduction: Cherry Taxonomy and Types 837 Production Areas 837 Growth and Management 838 Quality Factors 839 Disorders, Diseases, and Pests 839 Economic Problems and Future Developments 840 Further Reading 836 Chilled Foods: Effects on Shelf-life and Sensory Quality 841 Introduction 841 Chilled Foods 841 Shelf Life 841 Sensory Quality 844 Fruits and Vegetables 844 Conclusions 845 Further Reading 836 Chilled Foods: Modified Atmosphere Packaging 846 Rationale 846 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 846 MAP for Nonrespiring Chilled Foods 847 MAP for Respiring Chilled Foods 848 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chilled Foods: Packaging Under Vacuum 850 The Role of Oxygen in Food Spoilage 850 Vacuum Packaging: A Definition 850 Packaging Materials Utilized for Vacuum Packaging 850 Package Configurations Used for Vacuum Packaging of Chilled Foods 852 Influence of Vacuum Packaging on the Storage Behavior of Chilled Foods 853 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chilled Foods: Principles 855 Introduction 855 Chilling 855 The Refrigeration Process 856 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chlorophyll 864 Sources and Production 864 Chemical and Physical Characterization of Chlorophyll 864 Effect of Processing and Storage Conditions on Chlorophyll 864 Bioavailability and Health Effects 867 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cholecalciferol: Properties and Determination 869 Background 869 Physical and Chemical Properties 869 Occurrence and Forms in Food 869 Fortification of Foods 870 Analytical Methods 871 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cholesterol: Absorption, Function and Metabolism 874 Introduction 874 Cholesterol Absorption 875 HDL Cholesterol and Reverse Cholesterol Transport 877 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cholesterol: Factors Determining Blood Cholesterol Levels 880 Introduction 880 Aging 880 Gender 881 Genetic Factors 881 Dietary Factors 881 Physical Activity 883 Environmental Contaminants 883 Cigarette Smoking 884 Stress 884 Diseases 884 Drugs 885 Conclusions 886 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cholesterol: Properties, Processing Effects, and Determination 887 Properties 887 Processing Effects 890 Quantification 893 Determination of COPs 895 Further Reading 836 Choline: Physiology 897 Metabolism of Choline 897 Dietary Requirements 897 Choline and Brain Development 898 Choline and Cancer 898 Summary 898 Further Reading 836 Choline: Properties and Determination 900 Introduction 900 Estimation of Choline Intake 900 Extraction-Based Approaches for Total Choline Determination in Foods 903 Hydrolysis-Based Approaches for Total Choline Determination in Foods 903 Determination of Choline for Health Marker Status 904 Conclusions 905 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chromatography: Combined Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry 906 Introduction 906 Combined Chromatography to MS Strategies 906 Application in Food Analysis 908 Conclusion 910 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chromatography: Focus on Multidimensional GC 912 Introduction 912 Heart-Cut Multidimensional Gas Chromatography 912 Two-Dimensional Comprehensive Gas Chromatography (GCxGC) 915 Further Reading 836 Chromatography: High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 920 HPLC: The Separation Workhorse 920 Modes of HPLC 920 Stationary Phases 922 Instrumentation 923 Applications 924 Conclusions 925 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chromatography: Supercritical Fluid Chromatography 927 Introduction 927 SFC in Food Analysis 927 SFC in Health Analysis 932 Conclusions 933 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chromium: Physiology 935 Introduction 935 Absorption, Transportation, Storage, and Excretion 935 Metabolic Functions and Deficiency Symptoms 936 Requirements 939 Dietary Sources and Content in Food 939 Reference Doses 940 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Chromium: Properties and Determination 941 Physical and Chemical Properties 941 Determination in Food and Drink 942 Precautions to Be Taken in Chromium Determination 943 Sample Digestion 943 Determination Methods 943 Chromium(III) and Chromium(VI) Speciation 944 Conclusion 944 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture 946 Definition and Origin 946 Production 947 Cider Composition, Organoleptic Qualities and Health Impact 952 Potential Benefits 954 Potential Negative Aspects 955 Further Reading 836 Cirrhosis 956 Underlying Pathways Resulting in Malnutrition 956 Nutritional Assessment in End-Stage Liver Disease 957 Hepatocellular Disorders 958 Metabolic Disorders 958 Hepatobiliary Disorders (Including Neonatal Cholestasis Disorders) 959 Nutritional Therapies 959 Types of Support 960 Overall Recommendations 961 Further Reading 836 Relevant Website 849 Citrus Fruits 963 Citrus Fruits 963 Members of Citrus Genus 963 Types of Citrus Fruits 963 Citrus Fruit Development 964 Fruit Morphology 965 Methods of Consumption 965 Biochemical Composition of Fruits 965 Nutritional Value of Citrus Fruits 966 Further Reading 836 Relevant Website 849 Clostridium botulinum 968 Introduction 968 Types of Botulism 968 Toxin Action 968 Symptoms 968 Complications 969 Infectious Dose 969 Diagnosis/Confirmation 969 Treatment 969 Prevalence in the Environment 970 Prevalence in Foods 970 Global Incidence 970 Survival, Prevention, and Control 971 Detection 972 Therapeutic/Cosmetic Use of Botulinum Toxin 972 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Clostrce:italic>Clostridium perfringens 973 Background 973 The Organism 973 Occurrence 973 Detection 974 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Clostrce:italic>Clostridium perfringens 976 Introduction 976 Characteristics of the Organism 976 Factors Contributing to C. perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 976 Pathogenesis of C. perfringens Type A Food Poisoning 978 Epidemiology 978 Clinical Features 980 Diagnosis 980 Treatment and Prevention 980 References 836 Clostrce:italic>Clostridium botulinum and Botulinum Neurotoxin 982 Introduction 982 Presence of C. botulinum in the Environment 982 Presence of C. botulinum in Foods 983 Detection of C. botulinum 984 Detection of BoNT 985 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cobalamin (Vitamin B12): Metabolism and Disorders 987 Introduction 987 Vitamin B12 Ingestion and Related Disorders 987 Vitamin B12 Digestion and Related Disorders 987 Vitamin B12 Absorption and Related Disorders 988 Vitamin B12 in Blood and Tissues and Related Disorders 989 Clinical Manifestations of Vitamin B12 Deficiency 990 Vitamin B12 Deficiency Therapy 990 Acknowledgment 991 Further Reading 836 Cobalt: Properties and Determination 993 Cobalt Properties 993 Cobalt Analysis 993 Ion-Selective Electrodes 997 Colorimetric Methods 998 Nondestructive Techniques 998 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cobalt: Toxicology 999 Cobalt Physiology 999 Exposure Sources 999 Allergic Effects 1001 Carcinogenic Effects 1002 Cobalt Genotoxicity 1003 Respiratory Effects 1003 Cobalt and Thyroid Function 1004 Cardiovascular Diseases 1004 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cocoa: Composition and Health Effects 1006 Description of Commodity 1006 Sources and Production 1006 Availability, Absorption, and Metabolism 1007 History of Consumption and Formulation Including Some of the `Issues 1007 Health Effects 1007 Future and Health Claims 1009 Conclusion: Cocoa and Chocolate for Health or Pleasure? 1010 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cocoa: Production, Chemistry, and Use 1012 Cocoa Tree and Beans 1012 Cocoa Varieties and Geographical Diffusion 1012 Cocoa Beans Harvesting, Fermentation, and Drying 1012 Processing of Fermented Cocoa Beans: Roasting and Production of Cocoa Liquor 1013 Production of Cocoa Powder and Cocoa Butter 1014 Production of Chocolate 1014 Chemical Composition 1015 World Production and Human Consumption 1016 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Codex Alimentarius 1018 About Codex Alimentarius 1018 Codex Alimentarius Commission 1018 FAO/WHO Trust Fund for Participation in the Codex 1018 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Codex Alimentarius Commission: Role in International Food Standards Setting 1024 Introduction 1024 Purpose 1024 Scope 1025 Structure of Codex Alimentarius Commission and Its Subsidiary Bodies 1025 Scientific Basis for Codex Work 1027 Role of Codex Standards in the Framework of International Trade 1031 Conclusion 1031 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Coenzymes and Cofactors 1033 Introduction 1033 Biochemical Functions 1033 Cofactor Regulation and Generation 1045 Conclusion 1050 Further Readings 836 Relevant Websites 849 Coffee: Analysis and Composition 1052 Introduction 1052 Green Coffee 1052 Roasting Coffee 1052 Coffee Brew 1056 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Coffee: Decaffeination 1059 Introduction 1059 Background 1059 Decaffeination Procedures 1059 Future Trends 1062 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Coffee: Health Effects 1064 Introduction 1064 Antioxidant and Antibacterial Properties of Coffee 1065 Cardiovascular Effects of Coffee 1066 Effects on Cancer 1068 Effects on Neurodegenerative Diseases 1068 Other Effects 1069 Effects on Mortality 1069 Conclusions 1069 Further Reading 836 Coffee: Types and Production 1071 Coffee Types 1071 Planting 1072 Coffee Plant Propagation 1072 Coffee Cultivation 1072 Coffee Harvesting 1072 Harvesting Methods 1073 Coffee Processing 1073 Microorganisms: Quality and Safety in Coffee 1076 Ochratoxin in Roasted Coffee 1077 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Colon: Diseases and Disorders 1079 Functional Disorders Affecting the Colon 1079 Colonic Diverticulosis and Diverticular Disease 1080 Colonic Inflammation (Colitis) 1081 Colonic Neuropathies: Hirschsprung's Disease 1084 Further Reading 836 Colon: Structure and Function 822 Structure 1086 Functions 1088 Further Reading 836 Colors: Health Effects 1092 Introduction 1092 Food Natural Pigments 1092 Colorants Used as Additives in Food Industry 1095 Further Reading 836 Relevant websites 849 Colors: Properties and Determination of Natural Pigments 1100 Abbreviations 1100 Anthocyanins 1100 Betalains 1102 Carotenoids 1104 Chlorophylls 1106 Curcumin 1108 Hemoglobin and Myoglobin 1108 Further Reading 849 Relevant Websites 1110 Colors: Properties and Determination of Synthetic Pigments 1111 General Considerations 1111 Short History 1111 Synthetic Food Pigments Used in Food Industry 1112 Effects of Synthetic Food Pigments on Human Health 1112 Current Legislation 1113 SP Classification and Properties 1113 Synthetic Food Pigment Determination 1114 Conclusions 1116 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Condensed Milk 820 Introduction 1118 Condensed Milk 1118 Uses of Condensed Milk 1121 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Consumer Protection Legislation 808 Introduction 1123 Food Law and Consumer Protection 1123 Consumer Protection in Food Law 1123 Consumer Protection Legislation in International Food Law 1123 Consumer Protection Legislation in WTO Law Concerning Food 1124 Consumer Protection in Private Food Law 1124 Consumer Protection Legislation in American Food Law 1124 Consumer Protection Legislation in European Food Law 1125 Consumer Protection Legislation in Asian Food Law 1126 Consumer Protection Legislation in South African Food Law 1127 Further Reading 836 Controlled Atmosphere Storage: Applications for Bulk Storage of Foodstuffs 1128 Introduction 1128 Metabolic Processes of Fruits and Vegetables Affecting Their Shelf Life 1128 CA Storage Definition and Principles 1128 CA Storage of Fruits and Vegetables 1129 CA Storage of Grains and Animal Products 1132 Legislation 1133 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Controlled Atmosphere Storage: Effect on Fruit and Vegetables 1024 Introduction 1135 CA Storage Variables 1135 Recommended CA Storage Conditions 1137 Conclusions 1138 Further Reading 836 Relevant Website 849 Convenience Food 802 Introduction 1139 Definition 1139 Classification Systems 1139 Overriding Trends 1139 Drivers of Convenience Consumption 1140 Consumer Segments 1141 Healthy Convenience Food 1142 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cooking: Domestic Techniques 1143 Introduction 1143 General Considerations 1143 Cooking by Electromagnetic Radiation 1145 Quality Changes during Cooking 1145 Textural Changes 1145 Color and Flavor Changes 1146 Nutritional Changes 1146 Safety Aspects 1146 Further Reading 836 Copper: Physiology 1148 Properties, Production, and Industrial Uses of Copper 1148 Analytic Measurement of Copper 1148 Reference Values for Copper 1148 Sources of Copper Exposure 1149 Copper Bioavailability 1150 Whole-Body Copper Metabolism 1151 Intracellular Copper Trafficking 1151 Copper-Dependent Enzymes 1151 Copper Deficiency and Toxicity 1151 Genetic Disorders of Copper Metabolism 1152 Evaluation of Copper Status 1152 Acknowledgment 1153 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cream: Clotted Cream 1154 Introduction 1154 Manufacturing Methods of Clotted Cream 1154 Chemistry of Flavor and Golden Crust 1155 Recent Status of Clotted Cream 1156 Uses of Clotted Cream 1156 Risks Associated with Consumption of Clotted Cream 1157 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cream: Types of Cream 1158 Introduction 1158 Technology of Cream Separation 1158 Factors Influencing the Fat Percentage of Cream 1159 Standardization of Cream 1160 Pasteurization of Cream 1160 Neutralization of Cream 1161 Homogenization of Cream 1161 Ripening of Cream 1161 Cream Products 1161 Other Cream Products 1163 Conclusion 1164 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cured Foods: Health Effects 1165 Introduction 1165 Formation of N-Nitroso Compounds 1165 Other Potential Harmful Effects of Cured Foods 1168 Potential Beneficial Effects of Nitrate and Nitrite 1169 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Cystic Fibrosis, Nutrition in 1170 Definition 1170 Clinical Manifestations 1170 Management 1170 Further Reading 836 Dahi 1172 Introduction 1172 Definition 1172 Technology of Sweet and Sour Dahi Manufacture 1173 Technology of Sweetened Dahi (Misti Dahi) Manufacture 1175 Rheological Properties 1175 Role of Dahi in Complementary Feeding 1177 Further Reading 836 Dairy Products: Dietary and Medical Importance 1179 Introduction 1179 Milk, Dairy Products, and Cardiometabolism 1179 Cancer 1180 Milk as a Vehicle for Bioactive Molecules 1181 Conclusions 1182 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Date Palm: A Wealth of Healthy Food 1183 Introduction 1183 Description of Dates 1183 Types of Cultivars 1183 Production of Different Areas 1184 Consumption of Dates as a Food 1184 Nutritional Value of Dates 1185 Further Reading 836 Diarrheal Diseases 1188 Epidemiology and Global Burden of Diarrhea 1188 Morbidity and Risk Factors for Diarrhea 1188 Diarrhea Classification and Pathophysiology 1188 Etiology of Diarrhea 1190 Diagnosis and Management of Acute/Prolonged and Persistent Diarrhea 1191 Treatment Approach 1192 Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhea 1197 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Dietary Exposure Assessment 1200 Introduction 1200 Presence and Levels of Chemicals in Food 1200 Food Consumption Patterns 1201 Methods Used in Dietary Exposure Assessment 1202 Further Reading 836 Dietary Fiber: Bran 1205 Introduction 1205 Composition and Properties 1205 Health Effects 1207 Food Applications 1208 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Dietary Fiber: Determination 1210 Introduction 1210 Historical Perspectives on Dietary Fiber Values 1210 Gravimetric Methods 1211 Complete Polysaccharidic Components (GLC Methods) 1214 Comparison of GLC and Gravimetric Methods for Measuring TDF 1215 Nutritional Labeling and Analysis 1215 Conclusion 1217 Further Reading 836 Dietary Fiber: Energy Value 1064 Caloric Value in Human Nutrition 1219 Digestible Energy and Metabolizable Energy: Calculations 1220 Metabolizable or Net Energy? 1221 Mathematical Models for Undigested and Fermented Compounds: Sugar Alcohols 1221 Whole-body Calorimetric Measurements: Lactitol as a Model 1223 Metabolizable Energy Value of Dietary Fiber in Mixed Diets 1224 Overall Conclusion 1225 Further Reading 836 Dietary Fiber: Physiological Effects 1059 Introduction 1227 Fiber in the Alimentary Tract 1227 Small Intestine 1227 Large Intestine 1228 Adverse Physiological Effects 1230 Sources of Fiber 1230 Further Reading 836 Dietary Fiber: Properties and Sources 1071 Background 1231 Chemical Structure 1231 Physical Properties 1232 Interaction between Structure and Physiology 1234 Definition (Based on Function and Structure) 1236 Sources of Dietary Fiber 1238 Further Reading 836 Dietary Practices 1240 How to Build the `Perfect Diet?: A Methodological Approach 1240 General Rules for the General Population 1240 The Individual Approach 1242 Conclusion 1244 Further Reading 836 Dietary References: US 1245 Introduction 1245 History 1245 Indicators Used to Establish DRIs 1245 Definitions of DRIs 1245 Applications 1252 Challenges, Additional Research, and Future Steps 1257 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Dietary Surveys: National Food Intake 1259 Introduction 1259 Major Uses and Stakeholders of National Food Intake Data 1259 Study Design, Data Collection, and Handling 1260 Limitations 1263 Harmonization of National Food Intake Data Across Countries in the European Union 1264 Future Directions 1264 Conclusions 1264 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Drying: Effect on Nutrients, Composition and Health 1266 Introduction 1266 Effect of Drying on Nutrients 1266 Other Considerations When Drying Nutritional Formulations 1269 Drying and Health: Overview and Future Perspectives 1270 Further Reading 836 Drying: Physical and Structural Changes 1273 Introduction: Useful Concepts in Food Drying 1273 Importance of Drying in Foods: Benefits and Quality Importance 1273 Influence of Various Drying Parameters on Physical and Structural Food Modifications 1274 Effect of Drying Methods 1276 Concluding Remarks 1281 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Drying: Principles and Types 1283 Introduction 1283 Water Activity and Stability 1283 Water Activity and Equilibrium 1283 Water Activity of Air 1284 Water Transport Through Drying Processes 1284 Product and Process Variables Affecting Drying 1285 Temperature and Drying 1286 Drying Equipment and Techniques (Types of Drying) 1286 Changes in Product Properties Due to Drying 1287 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Eating Disorders 855 Eating Disorders Are Motivated Behavioral Disorders 1290 Diagnostic Criteria of Eating Disorders 1290 Disordered Eating Behaviors 1291 Laboratory Studies of Food Consumption/Macronutrient Selection 1292 Nutritional and Medical Complications of Eating Disorders 1292 Treatment of Eating Disorders 1294 Conclusion 1295 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Eggs: Composition and Health Effects 850 Egg Composition 1297 Egg Sources and Production 1297 Patterns of Consumption 1297 Nutrients in Eggs 1298 Conclusions 1301 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Eggs: Use in the Food Industry 846 Introduction 1303 Liquid Egg Products 1303 Freezing of Liquid Egg 1304 Production of Egg Powder 1305 Other Uses of Eggs in the Food Industry 1306 Hygiene Measures 1306 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Elderly: Nutrition Requirements 864 Introduction 1307 Energy Requirements 1307 Protein Requirements 1307 Fat Requirements 1308 Carbohydrate Requirements 1308 Fluid Needs in Older Adults 1308 Vitamin Requirements 1309 Minerals 1312 Barriers to Maintaining Adequate Nutrition 1312 Conclusion 1312 Further Reading 836 Emerging Foodborne Enteric Bacterial Pathogens 869 Introduction 1314 Bacterial Enteric Pathogens 1316 Ones to Watch 1323 Conclusions and Future Studies 1323 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Energy Metabolism 900 Regulation of Energy Metabolism 1330 Components of Energy Expenditure 1330 Metabolic Response to Stress 1331 Substrate Adaptations During the Acute Metabolic Response 1333 Assessment of Energy Requirement for the Hospitalized Patient 1333 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Energy: Intake and Energy Requirements 887 Introduction 1338 Energy Content of Foods 1338 Energy Intakes 1339 Energy Expenditure as the Basis for ERs 1339 ERs for What Purpose and for Whom? 1339 Utilizing Doubly Labeled Water-Derived Measurements of Energy Expenditure to Derive ERs 1340 Conclusion 1344 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Enteral Feeding 897 Definition 1346 Relevance 1346 Indications 1346 Planning 1346 Administration 1349 Monitoring 1350 Conclusion 1350 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Enzymes: Analysis and Food Processing 912 Processing Carbohydrates 1351 Processing Proteins 1353 Processing Lipids 1355 Other Food Enzymes 1356 Legislation Concerning the Safe Use of Food Enzymes 1357 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Enzymes: Functions and Characteristics 1359 Enzymes: Concept and History 1359 One-Gene-One-Enzyme 1359 Structure and Function of Enzymes 1360 Name, Types, and Classification of Enzymes 1360 How Enzymes Work 1362 Enzyme Kinetics 1362 The Effect of Physical and Chemical Agents on Enzyme Activity 1363 Enzyme Regulation 1364 Industrial Enzymes 1364 Extremozymes 1365 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Escherichia coli and Other Enterobacteriaceae: Food Poisoning and Health Effects 927 Introduction 1366 Intestinal Pathogenic E. coli 1366 Nonintestinal Pathogenic E. coli 1369 Other Enterobacteriaceae 1370 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Escherichia coli and : Occurrence and Detection 920 Enterobacteriaceae 1372 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Essential Oils: Isolation, Production and Uses 941 Background 1379 Isolation 1379 Production 1382 Uses 1383 Acknowledgment 1384 Further Reading 836 Essential Oils: Properties, Composition and Health Effects 935 Sources and Production 1385 Patterns of Consumption 1385 Availability, Absorption, and Metabolism 1385 Health Effects 1385 Further Reading 836 Ethnic Foods 946 Introduction 1390 Ethnic Differences in Food Classification Systems 1392 Dietary Assessment of Ethnic Food Consumption Patterns 1393 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Extrusion Cooking: Chemical and Nutritional Changes 1396 Introduction 1396 The More Frequent Chemical Transformations in Extrusion Cooking 1396 Nutritional Consequences of the Chemical Changes 1399 Overview of the Extrusion Cooking Effects on Nutritional Value 1401 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Extrusion Cooking: Principles and Practice 963 Extrusion-Cooking Technology 1403 Food Extruders 1404 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Famine, Hunger, and Undernourishment 973 Introduction 1408 Definitions for the Discussion of Famine 1408 Famine Mortality 1409 Current State of Global Food Insecurity 1409 Theories of Hunger 1412 Conclusions 1415 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fat Replacer 976 Introduction 1416 Definition of FR 1416 Safety of FRs 1422 Conclusion 1422 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fats: Classification and Analysis 987 Introduction 1423 Saponifiable Fraction 1423 Unsaponifiable Fraction 1427 Further Reading 836 Relevant Website 849 Fats: Production and Uses of Animal Fats 1431 Introduction 1431 Sources of Lipid in Meat 1431 Procedures for Rendering Fats 1433 Conclusions 1435 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fatty Acids: Determination and Requirements 1006 Introduction 1436 Fatty Acid Analysis 1436 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fatty Acids: Essential Fatty Acids 828 The Nature of Staple Foods 1442 Ethnic Food Traditions Affect EFA Intakes 1442 Animal Metabolism Has Competing Actions of n-3 and n-6 EFAs 1443 Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids Form Bioactive Mediators 1445 The Balance of n-3 and n-6 HUFA Actions Affect Health 1445 Omega-6 Eicosanoids Amplify Transient Insults into Chronic Injuries 1447 Using Knowledge of EFA Contents for Effective Preventive Nutrition 1448 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids 1012 From Dietary Fats to FAs 1450 FAs Nomenclature 1450 FA Composition and Structure 1451 Properties of FAs 1452 FA Metabolism 1453 FAs, Human Nutrition, and Health 1457 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fatty Acids: Metabolism 999 Fatty Acid Structure, Classification, and Nomenclature 1459 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis 1460 Fatty Acid Incorporation into Complex Lipids 1463 Fatty Acid Release from Complex Lipids 1465 Fatty Acid β-Oxidation 1467 Ketone Body Synthesis 1469 PUFAs as Substrates for Synthesis of Bioactive Lipid Mediators 1470 Short-Chain Fatty Acid Metabolism 1471 Further Reading 836 Relevant Websites 849 Fatty Ac/ce:italic> Fatty Acids 1018 Introduction 1472 Food Sources of Trans-Fatty Acids 1472 Appearance of Partially Hydrogenated Fat in the Food Supply 1472 Estimating Trans-Fatty Acid/Partially Hydrogenated Fat Intake 1472 Current Sources and Trends in Dietary Trans-Fatty Acid Intake 1473 Trans-Fatty Acids and Lipoprotein Profiles and Metabolism 1473 Trans-Fatty Acid and Cardiovascular Risk 1474 Ruminant Versus Partially Hydrogenated Fat and Cardiovascular Disease Risk 1474 Conclusions 1475 Further Reading 836 Fermented Foods: Composition and Health effects 1052 Introduction 1476 Fermented Foods: Composition and Nutritional Value 1476 Bioactive Compounds Derived from the Fermentation Processes 1478 Fermented Foods as Probiotics 1481 Conclusion