Encyclopedia of Evidence in Pharmaceutical Public Health and Health Services Research in Pharmacy

This encyclopedia covers the definitions, concepts, methods, theories, and application of evidence-based pharmaceutical public health and health services research. It highlights why and how this field has a significant impact on healthcare. The work aims to synthesize baseline knowledge as well as the latest and cutting-edge research-based information. The encyclopedia collates information on public health, health services research, evidence-based pharmacy practice and its impacts on patients, decision-makers and consumers. This reference work discusses all aspects of policy and practice decisions on medicines use, access and pharmacy services by covering broad aspects related to pharmacy practice, public health and health services research. The aim is to develop high-quality content, which will be a must-read and be used as a reference source at all pharmacy and medical schools in the world. The health services research investigates the impact of social factors, organizational policies, financing systems, medical technologies and personal influence on access, quality and cost of healthcare concerning the quality of life of the patients. This reference work fundamentally promotes the evidence-based evaluation of healthcare services and thus will improve the better access and delivery of healthcare services. Also, pharmacy, medical and health services students and researchers need a broad understanding of pharmaceutical public health, evidence-based approaches to delivering care, changing professional and patient behavior and undertaking research in these areas. In general, there is a need to build research capacity and capability in the pharmacy profession. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Professor Zaheer-Ud-Din Babar, University of Huddersfield SECTION EDITORS: Filipa Alves da Costa, University of Lisbon Zubin Austin, University of Toronto Dalia Dawood, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Andy Gray, University of Kwa Zulu-Natal Rachele Hendricks-Sturrup, Duke Margolis Center for Health Policy Jason Hsu, Taiwan Medical University Rabia Hussain, Universiti Sains Malaysia Christine Y. Lu, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute Mohamed Izham Mohamed Ibrahim, Qatar University Prasad Nishtala, University of Bath Derek Charles Stewart, College of Pharmacy, Qatar University Fatima Suleman, University of Kwa Zulu-Natal Zaheer-Ud-Din Babar, University of Huddersfield Preface List of Topics About the Editor-in-Chief Section Editors Contributors B Behavioral Medicine/Behavioral Science in Pharmacy Introduction to Behavioral Science and Behavioral Medicine Why Is Behavioral Science Important When Considering Health Research and Why Conduct Behavioral Research? Behavior Change Approaches Health Belief Model (HBM) The Necessity-Concerns Framework (NCF) Theory of Planned Behavior (Theory of Reasoned Action) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) Transtheoretical Model (TTM) Motivational Interviewing (MI) Behavior Change Wheel (BCW) Challenges and Recommendations for Conducting Behavioral Research Selecting the Right Tool to Measure the Behavior Scale Development and Validation When an Appropriate Tool Does Not Exist Designing an Intervention and Ensuring Fidelity Conclusion Cross-References References C Causal Inference in Pharmacoepidemiology Introduction Causal Inference: Brief Review of Principles, Assumptions, and Measures Types of Biases and Confounding Measured Confounding Unmeasured Confounding Collider Bias Selection Bias Immortal Time Bias Protopathic Bias or Reverse Causality Healthy Adherer or Healthy User Effect Prevalent User Bias Confounding by Indication Dependent or Informative Censoring Overview of Causal Directed Acyclic Graphs Methodological Approaches for Causal Modeling The Target Trial Framework Regression Adjustment Marginal Structural Models G Methods Conclusion References Community Health Outreach Services: Focus on Pharmacy-Based Outreach Programs in Low- to Middle-Income Countries Introduction to Community Outreach Services in Healthcare Evidence of Benefit of Community Outreach Programs in Healthcare Role of Pharmacy in Community Outreach Programs in Developing Countries Pharmacist ́s Role in Global (International) Outreach to LMICs Pharmacist Role in National Outreach in Developing Countries Developing Ideas and Designing Pharmacy-Based Outreach Programs in Resource Constraint Environments Challenges of Pharmacy-Based Outreach Programs in LMICs Lessons Learned and Future Directions Conclusion References Consensus Methodologies and Producing the Evidence Introduction A Range of Consensus Methods The Underlying Ontology and Epistemology Delphi Nominal Group Technique (NGT) Using the NGT Online RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method (RAM) Choosing a Consensus Method Optimizing Quality: Rigor and Robustness Strengths and Weaknesses Tips Cross-References References Continuous Education for Pharmacists: Documenting Research Evidence Introduction Definitions The Impact of CE/CPD Implementations The Design and Development of CPD The Learning Delivery Methods of CE/CPD Face-to-Face (In-Person) Activities Virtual and Online Activities E-Learning Activities Blended Activities The Utilization of Technology in CE/CPD The Evaluation, Gaps, and Challenges of CE/CPD Pharmacists ́ Attitudes and Motivators Toward CE/CPD CPD in Developed Countries and LMICs Accreditation of CE/CPD Programs Conclusion Cross-References References COVID-19 and Medicines Access Introduction Background on the COVID-19 Pandemic COVID-19 and Access to Vaccines Vaccine Hesitancy Vaccines Affordability and Equity Vaccination: Freedom of Movement and Ethics COVID-19 and Access to Pharmaceuticals Access to Pharmaceuticals in Acute Conditions Access to Pharmaceuticals for Chronic Health Conditions The Role of Community Pharmacy in Access to Pharmaceuticals During the COVID-19 Pandemic Challenges, Opportunities, and Recommendations Challenges Opportunities and Recommendations Reducing Duration of Supply Improving Equity Mesolevel Influencing Drug Supplies Microlevel Responsibilities Expanding the Role of Pharmacy and Pharmacists Re-structuring the Scope of Practice of Pharmacists Conclusions References D Deprescribing Deprescribing in Practice and Research Polypharmacy: An Emerging Issue with an Aging Population Deciding What to Do Next: Beginning to Address Polypharmacy and Deprescribing A Period of Synthesis and Investigating Approaches to Deprescribing A Patient-Centered Approach to Deprescribing Emerges Healthcare Providers Highlight Needs to Support Deprescribing Moving Deprescribing Research into Practice Healthcare Provider Education on Deprescribing Development of Curricula in the Care of Older Adults The Need for Deprescribing Content in the Curriculum Teaching of Deprescribing The Future of Deprescribing Education: Competencies to Guide Educational Approaches Patient, Public, and Stakeholder Engagement for Deprescribing The Need for Public Awareness About Polypharmacy and Deprescribing Engaging Patients in Shared Decision-Making About Their Medications Education for the Public Engaging the Public in Research and Advocacy Engaging Stakeholders Next Steps for Engagement Policy Changes to Support Deprescribing The Role of Policy in Facilitating Deprescribing Examples of Policy Interventions that Support Deprescribing Future Considerations for Policy Deprescribing: The Role of Networks Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Education Section References Policy Section References Other References Developing, Implementing and Evaluating Complex Services/Interventions, and Generating the Evidence Introduction Intervention Development, and Evaluation: Available Guidance and Frameworks Intervention Development Plan the Development Process Identify and Review Relevant Evidence and Theory Undertake Primary Data Collection Design and Refine the Intervention End the Development Process Evaluation and Implementation Preliminary Evaluations Definitive Evaluations Process Evaluations Enhancing Future Research Conclusion References Digital Health and Pharmacy: Evidence Synthesis and Applications Introduction The Evolution of Scientific Innovation in Healthcare Digital Health for Patients Telephone Based Web Based Mobile Based Electronic Health Record Digital Health for Healthcare Professionals Telehealth Telemedicine or Virtual Consultations Remote Monitoring Electronic Prescribing Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data for Healthcare Professionals Digital Health for Healthcare Institutions Barcode Technology Automated Dispensing Adherence Monitoring Digital Health for Academia Augmented Reality Virtual Reality Simulated Patient Learning Conclusion Future Research Directions Cross-References References Disaster Management and Emergency Preparedness in Low- and Middle-Income Countries Introduction Disasters and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Introduction and Types Some Major Disasters Categories of Disasters Effects of Disasters Characteristics of Disasters Disaster Victims Disaster Effects on Health Vulnerable Populations in Terms of Disaster Effects Efforts to Mitigate Disasters Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Framework Disaster Resilience Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in DRR Disaster Management and Emergency Preparedness Initiatives Disaster Management Cycle Integrated Organizational Approach to Disaster Management Prevention and Early Responding to Disaster and Its Complications Early Warning System (EWS) Pre-disaster, Peri-Disaster, and Post-disaster Initiatives Disaster Management Policy and Procedures: Prevention, Preparedness, and Mitigation Disaster Management Clinics and Hospitals Disaster Management Academia (DMA) and Curricula Development Disaster Management Guidelines and Guidance Community-Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP) Theories and Practice Relevant to Community Involvement in Disaster Management Disaster Medicine and Public Health (DMPH) Pharmaceuticals Issues in Disaster Management Disaster Medicines and Pharmaceuticals Developing Drug Use Guidelines and Dosing Charts for Disaster Management Providing Drug Counseling During Disaster Pharmaceuticals Procurement, Storage, Inventory for Disaster Management Pharmaceutical Policy Coordination for Disaster Management Challenges Documentation During Disasters Post-disaster Complications (PDCs) and Management Challenges During Pharmaceutical Stockpiling Detecting and Resolving Drug-Related Issues for Patients with Moderate, Chronic, and Acute Conditions Pharmaceutical Distribution and Logistics Management During Disaster Economic Implications of Disaster Management Services Pharmacists ́ Contribution to Disaster Management Lessons Learned Conclusions References Disease Surveillance in Low- and Middle-Income Countries Introduction Background to Disease Surveillance Definition Brief History of Public Health Surveillance Principles of Surveillance Characteristics of an Ideal Surveillance System Objectives of Disease Surveillance Systems Types of Surveillance Surveillance Process Core Steps or Components of a Public Health Syndromic Surveillance Various Surveillance Systems Infectious Disease Surveillance Chronic Diseases Surveillance Evaluation of Surveillance Systems Applications and Importance of Surveillance Systems Uses of Public Health Surveillance Uses of Surveillance Data Challenges of Surveillance Systems Ethical and Legal Considerations of Surveillance Systems Drug Surveillance and Public Health Transition/Translation of Disease Surveillance into Pharmacy Practice Role of Pharmacists in Public Health Surveillance Role of Pharmacists in Disease Surveillance Community Pharmacists Clinical Pharmacists Impact of Pharmacists on Disease Surveillance Evidence and Applications of Pharmacists as a Stakeholder in Disease Surveillance Future Implications of Pharmacists on Disease Surveillance Health Outcomes Surveillance Disease Surveillance in LMICs Conclusions References Drug Safety in Children: Research Studies and Evidence Synthesis Introduction Drug Safety Issues in Children Adverse Drug Reaction Prevalence and Nature of Adverse Drug Reaction Off-Label Drug Use (OLDU) and Identification of Risk Factors for Developing an ADR Off-Label Drug Use and Pharmacoepidemiological Approaches Nature and Extent of OLDU Harmonization of Dosage Recommendations Database for OLDU Guidance on OLDU Exposure to Excipients of OLDU Evidence on Effectiveness and Safety of OLDU Medication Error Prevalence and Nature of Medication Errors Evaluation of Medication Errors Monitoring System Prediction of Contributing Factors Reducing Medication Errors Inappropriate and Irrational Drug Use Irrational Drug Use Development of Tools for Detecting Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions in Children Prevalence of Inappropriate Drug Use Recommendations for Future Studies Conclusion References Drug Safety in Pregnancy: Data, Methods, and Challenges Introduction Challenges to Pregnancy Research Essential and Unintentional Exposures Evaluating Exposures and Outcomes Teratogenic Mechanisms Post-marketing Safety Data Requirements Data on Pregnancies Timing of the Pregnancy Medication Exposure Link Between Mother and Child Pregnancy Outcomes Infant Follow-Up Adequate Sample Size Comparator Group Data on Confounders Types of Data Source Surveillance Systems Teratology Information Services Exposure Registries Medical Record Databases Population-Based Record Linkage Surveillance Systems Study Designs Drug Utilization Studies Studies to Evaluate Risk Risk Minimization Pregnancy Prevention Plans Conclusion Cross-References References E Economic Evaluation Methods and Approaches Introduction Types of Economic Evaluation Identifying the Cost-Effective Technology Analytical Methods Problem Structuring Population Decision Options Conceptual Model Within-Trial Economic Evaluations Design and Analysis of Within-Trial Economic Evaluations Example of Within-Trial Economic Evaluation Using Decision Models to Estimate Costs and Benefits Model Types Decision Trees Markov Model Partitioned Survival Model Patient-Level State Transition Simulation Models Discrete Event Simulation Model Agent-Based Model Uncertainty and Value of Information Characterizing Uncertainty Value of Information Conclusion References Economic Evidence for Pharmacist Prescribing in Community Pharmacy Introduction Economic Evidence for Pharmacist Prescribing in Community Pharmacy: Chronic Disease Management Economic Evidence for Pharmacist Prescribing in Community Pharmacy: Acute Disease Management Economic Evidence for Pharmacist Prescribing in Community Pharmacy: Medication Therapy Management (MTM) and Appropriateness Economic Evidence for Pharmacist Prescribing in Community Pharmacy: Special Conditions Prescribing Hormonal Contraception Tobacco Cessation Vaccination Overview of the Evidence Conclusion References Economic Evidence for Pharmacist-Led Medicines Use Review and Medicines Reconciliation Introduction Definition of Medicines Use Review (MUR) and Medicines Reconciliation (MedRec) Medicines Use Review (MUR) and Medicines Reconciliation (MedRec) Cost Modeling of the Economic Impact and Cost-Effectiveness of Medicines Use Review (MUR) and Medicines Reconciliation (MedRec) Economic Evidence of Medicines Use Review (MUR) and Medicines Reconciliation (MedRec) Interventions What We Know About Medicines Use Review (MUR)? What We Know About MedRec? Recommendations Conclusion Cross-References References Economic Evidence for Pharmacist-Led Vaccination Services Introduction Methods Results Studies Focusing on Influenza Vaccine Studies Focusing on Other Vaccines Discussion Summary of the Main Findings Overall Advantages of Administering Vaccines at the Community Pharmacies Limited Number of Economic Evaluations References Ensuring Cultural Safety for Indigenous Peoples Accessing Medicines Terminology Transferability Acknowledgement of Country Introduction Pharmacy-Led Primary Healthcare Services Australian Policies, Procedures, and Programs Designed to Improve Indigenous Peoples Health Cultural Safety Reflective Practice to Ensure Pharmacists Are Culturally Safe Principles of Reflective Practice: What Is Reflective Practice? Why Engage with Reflective Practice? What Strategies or Tools Can Educators Utilize to Facilitate and Provide Opportunities for Future Healthcare Practitioners to ... The WRAP Toolkit Indigenous Graduate Attribute Reflective Practice as a Lifelong Learning Competency for Continued Professional Development Recommendations for Enhanced Cultural Learning Through Reflective Practice Conclusion References Equity in Access to and Quality Use of Medicines in Low- and Middle-Income Countries Introduction Equity in Health Services Equitable Access to Medicines and Other Health Technologies Rational Selection and Quality Use of Essential Medicines Rational Selection Quality Use of Medicines (QUM)/Rational Use of Medicines (RUM) Pharmaceutical Expenditure and Medicine Availability and Affordability Pharmaceutical Expenditure Medicine Availability and Affordability Sustainable Financing Through Equitable Funding Mechanisms Cost Containment Strategies Financing Strategies Reliable Pharmaceutical Supply and Distribution Systems for Medicines of Adequate Quality, Safety, and Efficacy Pharmaceutical Supply and Distribution Systems Pharmaceutical Regulatory Systems Conclusion References Evidence and Research on Cancer Medicine Prices Introduction Cancer Epidemiology Cancer Drug Costs Studies on Cancer Medicine Prices Cancer Drug Prices in the USA Cancer Drug Prices in Europe Cancer Drug Prices in Asia Drug Prices in China Discussion Conclusions Cross-References References Evidence and the Use of Theory in Health Services Research in Pharmacy Introduction Background Theory in the Context of Intervention Development The Theoretical Domains Framework Linking Theoretical Domains to Intervention Components Polypharmacy: A Major Medication Challenge Developing Interventions to Address Prescribing and Adherence to Appropriate Polypharmacy Assessment of the Evidence Base Barriers and Facilitators to Prescribing of and Adherence to Polypharmacy: Identification of Key Theoretical Domains Moving from Theory to Behavior Change Putting BCTs into Practice Testing of Interventions: An Opportunity for Refinement A Systematic Approach to Intervention Development: Is It Worth It? References Evidence for the Selection of Essential Medicines The Concept of Essential Medicines The Practical Implication of the Essential Medicines Concept The WHO Process of Selecting Essential Medicines National Selection of Essential Medicines The Selection Committee Managing Conflict of Interest Secretarial Support Timing Evidence-Based Selection Process, Following the WHO Method Do National Lists Follow the WHO Model List? Further Reading References Evidence Generation on Access to Medicines by Patients Introduction Importance of Access to Medicines Why Measure Access to Medicines? Data Sources and Measures Methods Cross-sectional Methods Market Share Pricing Time Series Evidence and Policy Change Conclusion References Evidence in Evaluation Research Introduction Evaluation Research: Concepts and Historical Trends Evaluation Research Models Health Tchnology Assessment: A Broad Evaluation Research Approach Performance of the Health and Social Care Systems Challenges in the Evaluation Research: The Case of Pharmacy Service Studies Conclusions References Evidence of Mental Health Support and the Pharmacist Introduction Medicines and Pharmaceutical Care Interventions Systematic Reviews Concerning Pharmacists ́ Activities in Mental Health Comments Systematic Reviews of Other Patient Care Interventions Delivered by Pharmacists Comments Public Health Interventions for Mental Health Screening for Mental Health Disorders Smoking Cessation Triage of Acute Episodes Health Promotion Conclusions Cross-References References Evidence of the Impact of Early Detection Programs for Cancer Introduction Cancer Epidemiology Breast Cancer Cervical Cancer Colorectal Cancer Prevention of Cancer Methods Findings Effectiveness of Cancer Screening as a Public Health Intervention Breast Cancer Screening Cervical Cancer Screening Colorectal Cancer Screening Evidence of Effectiveness of Pharmacist-Led Cancer Screening Programs Discussion Implementing Cancer Prevention and Screening Programs Breast Cancer Screening Cervical Cancer Screening Colorectal Cancer Screening Pharmacists ́ Potential Role in Cancer Prevention Requirements for an Effective Contribution to Cancer Prevention Programs Conclusion References Evidence of the Impact of Harm Minimization Programs Introduction Methods for Searching the Literature Main Findings and Discussions Overall Evidence of the Effect of Harm Minimization Interventions Access to Naloxone: Take-Home Programs (THN) NSEP and OST Approaches Supervised Drug Consumption Facilities (SCF) or Supervised Injection Facilities (SIF) Integration of Testing and Treatment of Blood-Borne Diseases Other Combined Interventions Evidence of Impact of Pharmacist-Led Harm Minimization Interventions Challenges and Perspectives on Harm Minimization Interventions Cross-References Appendix I Complete Search Strategy (PubMed): References Evidence of the Impact of Interventions Related to Medication Wastage Introduction Definitions and Classifications Causes of Waste Country Care Setting and Stage of Medicines Use Prescribing Ordering and Dispensing Administration Reuse of Medicines Medicines Packaging and Expiry Interventions to Reduce Medicines Wastage Methods The Impact of Interventions Related to Medicines Wastage Review of the Evidence The Role of Pharmacy Staff in Interventions to Reduce Medicines Wastage Discussion: Gaps in the Current Evidence Methodological Challenges of Measuring Medicines Wastage Gaps in the Interventions Evaluated for Their Effects on Medicines Wastage Lack of Patient and Public Involvement in the Development and Evaluation of Interventions to Reduce Medicines Wastage Conclusion References Evidence of the Impact of Interventions to Decrease Healthcare-Associated Infections Introduction Methods Findings Healthcare-Associated Infections, Antimicrobial Resistance, and the Role of Pharmacists Evidence of Effectiveness of Interventions to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections Evidence of Effectiveness of Pharmacist-Led Interventions to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections Discussion Conclusions Cross-References References Evidence of the Impact of Interventions to Decrease Polypharmacy Introduction What Is Polypharmacy? Why Is It Important to Address Polypharmacy? Prevalence of Polypharmacy Interventions to Address Polypharmacy Why Addressing Prescribing Culture Is Essential Methods Used to Search the Literature Evidence of the Effectiveness to Support Interventions to Address Polypharmacy Main Findings Highlighting the Existing Evidence of Effectiveness of Services or Interventions Clinical Impact of the Interventions to Address Polypharmacy Indicators for Appropriate Polypharmacy Economic Impact of Interventions to Address Polypharmacy Barriers and Facilitators to Address Inappropriate Polypharmacy Discussion Recommendations References Evidence of the Impact of Interventions to Improve Medication Adherence Introduction What Is Medication Adherence? Types of Nonadherence What Are the Determinants of Medication Adherence? Socioeconomic Factors Health Care Team and System-Related Factors Therapy-Related Factors Condition-Related Factors Patient-Related Factors Methods Overview of Evidence-Based Medication Adherence Management Interventions Educational Interventions Cognitive Behavioral Interventions Based on Change Theories and Models Health Belief Model (HBM) The Necessity-Concerns Framework (NCF) The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) Motivational Interviewing (MI) Medication-Taking Reminders Treatment Simplification Medication Packaging Rewards Digital and Technological Based Interventions Evidence of Pharmacist-Led Interventions to Enhance Medication Adherence Discussion References Evidence of the Impact of Interventions to Prevent Obesity Introduction Methods Findings Evidence of Impact of Health Interventions to Prevent Obesity Evidence of Impact of Pharmacist-Led Interventions to Prevent Obesity Discussion Barriers and Limitations to Implement Weight Management Programs Bridging Gaps and Moving Forward Advanced Training in Obesity and Self-management Support Patient-Centeredness Towards an Evidence-Based Structured WMP with Personalized Multicomponent Goals Mental Health Screening and Brief Intervention Characterization of Patients ́ Sociocultural Environment and Wide Spectrum Collaboration Enhancing Communication Technologies Such as eHealth or mHealth Public Health Policies and Approaches Conclusion References Evidence of the Impact of Pharmacists Through Immunization Interventions Introduction Methods Search Strategy and Selection Criteria Identification of Emerging Research Streams Main Findings Historical Context of the Role of Pharmacists in Immunization Interventions Pharmacist Involvement in Immunization Activities Pharmacists as Immunizers Evolution of the Evidence Base and Research Gaps Rationale for Pharmacist Involvement in immunization Services The Relationship Between Legislation for Pharmacists to Immunize and Population Vaccination Rates Pharmacist Introduction of Novel Methods to Boost Population Immunization Rates Targeting Advocacy and Education Interventions Using Health Record Screening Methods Strategic Partnerships with Health Departments and Other Immunization Providers Incentivization of Immunization Services Health System Organization Pharmacists Supporting the SARS-CoV-2 Immunization Rollout Discussion References Evidence of the Impact of Programs to Prevent and Manage Heart Disease and Stroke Introduction Methods Data Sources Search Strategies Study Selection Data Extraction and Data Synthesis Search Results Evidence Effectiveness of Pharmacist Interventions to Prevent Heart Disease and Stroke Pharmacist Role in Multidisciplinary Team Pharmacist Role in Education of Other Healthcare Professionals Use of Digital Health in Pharmacist Preventive Intervention Management of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases Pharmacist Intervention to Improve Medication Adherence Pharmacist Intervention to Optimize Medication Use Pharmacist Intervention to Improve Clinical Outcomes Economic Impact of Pharmacist Intervention New Era with Technological Advancement and Its Impact on CPS Discussion References Evidence of the Impact of Smoking Cessation Introduction Methods Type of Studies Pico Population Intervention Comparator Outcomes Exclusion Criteria Search Methods for Identification of Studies Selection of Studies and Data Collection Findings Evidence of Effectiveness of Smoking Cessation Interventions Pharmacotherapy Interventions Nicotine Replacement Therapy Nicotine Receptor Partial Agonists Different Pharmacotherapies Including Bupropion Behavioral Change Techniques Interventions Intensive Behavioral Interventions Combination Therapies with BCT and Pharmacotherapy Media-Based Interventions Telephone Counseling Mobile Communication Real-Time Video Counseling Self-Help Interventions Exercise Interventions Reduction-to-Quit Interventions Interventions for Smoking Relapse Prevention Electronic Cigarettes for Smoking Cessation Incentives for Smoking Cessation Healthcare Professional-Led Interventions Physicians Nurses Dentists Evidence of Effectiveness of Pharmacist-Led Smoking Cessation Interventions Discussion References Evidence of the Role of Pharmacy-Based Interventions in Sexually Transmitted Infections Introduction Methodology Chlamydia Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist in Chlamydia Interventions Gonorrhea Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist in Gonorrhea Interventions Human Papillomavirus Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist in HPV Interventions HIV Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist in HIV Interventions Findings Evidence of Effectiveness of Interventions to Prevent, Manage, or Cure STIs Evidence of Effectiveness of Pharmacist-Led Interventions Conclusion References Evidence on Real-World Data and Real-World Evidence as a Driver for Precision Medicine Implementation in Pharmacy Practice Introduction and Overview: Real-World Data and Real-World Evidence Defined RWD and Precision Medicine RWD As a Driver for Medical Product Development RWD Considerations for Precision Medicine Data Standardization Data Quality Data Bias Clinical Trials Versus Real-World Settings Novel RWD-Driven Clinical Trials RWE in Pharmacy Practice and Opportunities for Precision Medicine RWE in Pharmacist-Led Interventions RWE to Evaluate and Inform Pharmacy Practice RWE to Assess Patient-Reported Data Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Evidence on the Impact of Direct-to-Consumer Pharmacogenetic Testing Introduction and Overview: The Pharmacogenomics Testing and Therapeutics Landscape Evidence on the Consumer Pharmacogenomic Testing Market Consumer Pharmacogenomics - Psychiatry Market Overview D2C Pharmacogenomic Testing: Consumer- Versus Clinician-Driven Momentum Evidence on the Clinical Relevance and Actionability of D2C Pharmacogenomic Testing Influence of D2C Pharmacogenomic Testing on Clinicians Prescribing Clinical Relevance of D2C Pharmacogenomic Testing: Geographic Ancestry and Ethnicity Evidence on Clinician and Pharmacy Trainee Experiences and Perspectives Regarding D2C Genetic or Pharmacogenomic Testing Evidence on Patient Consumer Experiences and Perspectives Regarding D2C Pharmacogenomic Testing Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications and Policy Considerations Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Evidence on the Impact of Pharmacogenetics to Treat and Manage Asthma Introduction Evidence Based on Clinical Studies Pharmacogenetics and Asthma in Clinical Practice Conclusion Cross-References References Evidence on the Impact of Pharmacogenetics to Treat and Manage Cardiovascular Diseases Introduction 1) Evidence on the Pharmacogenetics of Antihypertensive Drugs Evidence Based on Clinical Studies Pharmacogenetics of Antihypertensive Drugs in Clinical Practice (2) Evidence On the Pharmacogenetics of Antiplatelet Drugs Evidence Based on Clinical Studies Pharmacogenetics of Antiplatelet Drugs in Clinical Practice (3) Evidence On the Pharmacogenetics of Anticoagulant Drugs Evidence Based on Clinical Studies Pharmacogenetics of Anticoagulants in Clinical Practice (4) Evidence On the Pharmacogenetics of Statins Evidence Based on Clinical Studies Pharmacogenetics of Statins in Clinical Practice Chapter Summary References Evidence on the Utility and Limitations of Artificial Intelligence for Predicting Personalized Disease Prognosis and Treatment... Introduction: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Disease Prognosis Prediction and Treatment Decision-Making Use of Artificial Intelligence in Disease Prognosis Prediction Lung Cancer Breast Cancer Myocardial Infarction Diabetes Hypertension Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Use of Artificial Intelligence for Treatment Outcome Prediction to Inform Disease Treatment Decisions Lung Cancer Breast Cancer Liver Cancer Lymphocytic Leukemia Myocardial Infarction Diabetes Limitations and Future Prospects of Using Artificial Intelligence in Predicting Disease Prognosis Conclusions Cross-References References Evidence on the Utility and Limitations to Using AI for Personalized Drug Safety Prediction Introduction: The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Drug Safety Prediction Use of Artificial Intelligence in the Prediction of Adverse Drug Reactions Use of Artificial Intelligence for Assisting in Avoiding Drug-Drug Interactions (DDI) Use of Artificial Intelligence for Assisting in Avoiding Incorrect Prescription Behavior The Limitations and Future Prospects of Artificial Intelligence in Drug Safety Prediction Cross-References References Evidence Produced While Using Qualitative Methodologies Including Research Trustworthiness Introduction What Is Research Trustworthiness? Why Is Evidence Generated Using Qualitative Methodologies Scrutinized for Trustworthiness? Strategies to Enhance Rigor Developing Evidence Through Qualitative Methodologies Ethnography Phenomenology Grounded Theory Case Study Narrative Methodology Approach Enhancing Trustworthiness Using Qualita