Encyclopedia of English Language

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language ......Page 1 Contents ......Page 2 Preface ......Page 4 Modelling English ......Page 6 1. The history of English......Page 9 2. The Origins of English......Page 10 The Early Period ......Page 12 The Old English Corpus ......Page 14 The Earliest English Literature......Page 16 Old English Letters ......Page 20 Old English Sounds ......Page 22 Some Features of Old English Grammar ......Page 24 Old English Vocabulary ......Page 26 Lexical Invasions ......Page 28 Old English Dialects ......Page 32 4. Middle English......Page 34 The Transition From Old English ......Page 36 The Middle English Corpus ......Page 38 The Chaucerian Achievement ......Page 42 Middle English Spelling ......Page 44 Norman Influence ......Page 45 Middle English Sounds ......Page 46 Middle English Grammar ......Page 48 Middle English Vocabulary ......Page 50 Middle English Dialects ......Page 54 Middle Scots ......Page 56 The Origins Of Standard English ......Page 58 5. Early Modern English ......Page 60 Transitional Texts ......Page 62 The Age Of Bibles ......Page 63 English During The Renaissance ......Page 64 The Influence Of Shakespeare ......Page 66 The King James Bible ......Page 68 The Emerging Orthographic System ......Page 70 Renaissance Punctuation ......Page 72 Sound Changes ......Page 73 Early Modern English Grammar ......Page 74 The Search For Stability ......Page 76 Johnson's Dictionary ......Page 78 6. Modern English......Page 80 The Rise of Prespective Grammar ......Page 82 New Nation, New Themes ......Page 84 American Identities ......Page 87 Breaking The Rules ......Page 88 Variety Awareness ......Page 90 Literary Voices ......Page 92 The Language Of Dickens ......Page 93 In Living Memory ......Page 94 7. World English ......Page 96 Dialect Differences ......Page 97 Black English ......Page 100 The Southern Hemisphere ......Page 102 New Zealand ......Page 103 South Africa ......Page 104 South Asia ......Page 105 Colonial Africa ......Page 106 South-East Asia And The South Pacific ......Page 108 A World Language ......Page 110 Standard English ......Page 114 The Future Of English ......Page 116 One Language Or Many? ......Page 117 Threatening English ......Page 118 English Threatened ......Page 119 8. English Vocabulary......Page 121 Abbreviations ......Page 122 Proper Names ......Page 124 How Large is Your Lexicon? ......Page 125 Native Vocabulary ......Page 126 Foreign Borrowings ......Page 128 Lexical Structure ......Page 130 Lexical Creation ......Page 134 Literary Neologizing ......Page 136 10. Etymology......Page 138 Semantic Change ......Page 140 Folk Etymology ......Page 141 Names ......Page 142 English Place Names In The New World ......Page 146 Personal Names ......Page 150 Object Names ......Page 156 11. The Structure Of The Lexicon......Page 158 Semantic Fields ......Page 159 The Thesaurus ......Page 160 Lexical Structure ......Page 162 The Loaded Lexicon ......Page 172 The Living Lexicon ......Page 180 The Dying And Dead Lexicon ......Page 186 Part III - English Grammar ......Page 191 13. Grammatical Mythology ......Page 192 Traditional Grammar ......Page 194 A Serious Subject ......Page 195 Prescriptive Grammar ......Page 196 The 20th-Century Legacy ......Page 198 The Main Branches of Grammar ......Page 199 14. The Structure of Words ......Page 200 Adjectives ......Page 201 Numbers ......Page 202 Case ......Page 204 Verbs ......Page 206 15. Word Classes ......Page 208 Class Consciousness ......Page 209 The Class Of Nouns ......Page 210 The Class Of Pronouns ......Page 212 The Class Of Adverbs ......Page 213 The Class Of Verbs ......Page 214 The Class Of Conjunctions ......Page 215 16. The Structure Of Sentences ......Page 216 Types Of Sentence......Page 218 Levels Of Sentence Structure ......Page 219 Sentence Functions ......Page 220 Clause Elements ......Page 222 Phrases ......Page 224 Verb Phrase Meanings ......Page 226 Multiple Sentences ......Page 228 Multiple Structures ......Page 229 Other Syntactic Issues ......Page 230 Adding a Comment......Page 231 Reporting Speech ......Page 232 Sentence Information ......Page 233 Beyond The Sentence ......Page 234 The Paradox Of Grammar ......Page 235 17. The Sound System ......Page 237 The Vowels ......Page 239 Consonants ......Page 244 Syllables ......Page 248 Connected Speech ......Page 249 Prosody ......Page 250 Sound Symbolism ......Page 252 Pronunciation In Practice ......Page 256 18. The Writing System ......Page 258 The Alphabet ......Page 260 Properties Of Letters ......Page 267 Graphemic Symbolism ......Page 270 Analysing Handwriting ......Page 271 Graphetic Variety ......Page 272 Extra Graphic Dimensions ......Page 273 English Spelling ......Page 274 Spelling Reform ......Page 278 Punctuation ......Page 280 Punctuation Over Time ......Page 281 Punctuation Marks ......Page 284 Part V - Using English ......Page 287 19. Varieties Of Discourse ......Page 288 Constructing a Discourse......Page 289 Microlinguistic Studies ......Page 290 Text And Varieties ......Page 292 Speech And Writing ......Page 293 Mixed Medium ......Page 294 Monologue And Dialogue ......Page 296 Unexpected Features Of Dialogue ......Page 297 Monologue Variations ......Page 298 Dialogue Variations ......Page 299 20. Regional Variation ......Page 300 International And Intranational ......Page 301 A Day In The Life Of The English Language ......Page 302 American And British English ......Page 308 Classifying Lexical Differences ......Page 310 Grammatical Differences ......Page 313 Regional Variation In American English ......Page 314 American Dialect Atlases ......Page 315 Dare ......Page 316 Urban Observations......Page 318 Variation In British English ......Page 320 Dialect Of England: Traditional And Modern ......Page 326 Urban Grammar ......Page 328 Variation In Scotland ......Page 330 Early Trends ......Page 332 The Present-Day ......Page 335 Welsh English ......Page 336 The Reaction ......Page 337 Irish English ......Page 338 Dialect Divisions ......Page 339 Irish English Abroad ......Page 340 The Broader Scene ......Page 341 Canadian English ......Page 342 Unique Features......Page 344 Canadian Dialects ......Page 345 Caribbean English ......Page 346 Creole Characteristics ......Page 348 Australian English ......Page 352 New Zealand English ......Page 356 Regional Variation ......Page 357 South African English ......Page 358 New Englishes: A Preliminary Sitting ......Page 360 New Forms ......Page 361 21. Social Variation......Page 366 Requiescat In Pace ......Page 367 Prescriptive Attitudes ......Page 368 Gender Issues ......Page 370 The Speed Of Change ......Page 371 Occupational Varieties ......Page 372 Religious English ......Page 373 Scientific English ......Page 374 Clarifying Clarity ......Page 375 Legal English ......Page 376 Precision And Tradition ......Page 377 Knowledge Of The Law ......Page 378 Plain English ......Page 379 Political English ......Page 380 News Media English ......Page 382 Journalinguistic s......Page 384 Broadcasting ......Page 386 Sports Commentary ......Page 388 Advertising English ......Page 390 Restricted English ......Page 392 New Varieties ......Page 394 22. Personal Variation ......Page 396 Deviance ......Page 397 Word Games ......Page 398 Rule-Breaking Varieties ......Page 402 The Edges Of Language ......Page 405 Verbal Humor ......Page 406 Humour In Structure ......Page 408 Comic Alphabets ......Page 409 Lexical Humour ......Page 410 Discourse Humour ......Page 411 Variety Humour ......Page 412 A Very Peculiar Practice ......Page 413 Literary Freedom ......Page 414 A Linguistic Perspective ......Page 415 Phonetic Freedom ......Page 416 Phonological Freedom ......Page 417 Graphological Freedom ......Page 418 Visual Form ......Page 419 Grammatical Freedom ......Page 420 Lexical Freedom ......Page 421 Discourse Freedom ......Page 422 Variety Freedom ......Page 424 Demonstrating Identity ......Page 425 Part VI - Learning About English ......Page 427 23. Learning English As A Mother Tongue......Page 428 The Development of Grammar ......Page 430 The Foundation Year ......Page 432 Speech Production ......Page 433 Insufficient Language ......Page 434 24. New Ways Of Studying English ......Page 438 The Corpus Revolution ......Page 440 Dictionary Giants ......Page 444 The Oxford English Dictionary ......Page 445 Sources And Resources ......Page 448 Appendices ......Page 449 The Letter A ......Page 450 The Letters B,C......Page 451 The Letters C,D......Page 452 The Letters D,E......Page 453 The Letters D,F,G ......Page 454 The Letters G,H,I ......Page 455 The Letters I,J,K,L ......Page 456 The Letters L,M,N......Page 457 The Letters N,O,P ......Page 458 The Letters P,Q,R ......Page 459 The Letters R,S ......Page 460 The Letters S,T ......Page 461 The Letters T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z ......Page 462 II. Special Symbols And Abbreviations ......Page 463 Abbot -> Chiaro ......Page 464 Churchill -> Hancock ......Page 465 Hanks -> Mitford......Page 466 Mittins -> Todd ......Page 467 Tolkien -> Zupitza ......Page 468 IV. Further Reading ......Page 469 A -> M ......Page 472 N -> Z ......Page 473 A -> G ......Page 474 H -> R ......Page 475 S -> Z ......Page 476 A,B ......Page 477 B,C ......Page 478 C,D,E ......Page 479 E,F,G ......Page 480 G,H,I, J,K......Page 481 L,M ......Page 482 M,N,O,P ......Page 483 P ......Page 484 Q,R,S ......Page 485 S,T ......Page 486 T,U,V,WX,Y,Z ......Page 487 Aknowledgements ......Page 488 None The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language 1 Contents 2 Preface 4 Modelling English 6 Part I - The History Of English 9 1. The history of English 9 2. The Origins of English 10 3. Old English 12 The Early Period 12 The Old English Corpus 14 The Earliest English Literature 16 Old English Letters 20 Old English Sounds 22 Some Features of Old English Grammar 24 Old English Vocabulary 26 Lexical Invasions 28 Old English Dialects 32 4. Middle English 34 The Transition From Old English 36 The Middle English Corpus 38 The Chaucerian Achievement 42 Middle English Spelling 44 Norman Influence 45 Middle English Sounds 46 Middle English Grammar 48 Middle English Vocabulary 50 Middle English Dialects 54 Middle Scots 56 The Origins Of Standard English 58 5. Early Modern English 60 Transitional Texts 62 The Age Of Bibles 63 English During The Renaissance 64 The Influence Of Shakespeare 66 The King James Bible 68 The Emerging Orthographic System 70 Renaissance Punctuation 72 Sound Changes 73 Early Modern English Grammar 74 The Search For Stability 76 Johnson's Dictionary 78 6. Modern English 80 The Rise of Prespective Grammar 82 New Nation, New Themes 84 American Identities 87 Breaking The Rules 88 Variety Awareness 90 Literary Voices 92 The Language Of Dickens 93 In Living Memory 94 7. World English 96 Dialect Differences 97 Black English 100 The Southern Hemisphere 102 New Zealand 103 South Africa 104 South Asia 105 Colonial Africa 106 South-East Asia And The South Pacific 108 A World Language 110 Standard English 114 The Future Of English 116 One Language Or Many? 117 Threatening English 118 English Threatened 119 Part II - English Vocabulary 121 8. English Vocabulary 121 Abbreviations 122 Proper Names 124 How Large is Your Lexicon? 125 9. The Sources Of The Lexicon 126 Native Vocabulary 126 Foreign Borrowings 128 Lexical Structure 130 Lexical Creation 134 Literary Neologizing 136 10. Etymology 138 Semantic Change 140 Folk Etymology 141 Names 142 English Place Names In The New World 146 Personal Names 150 Object Names 156 11. The Structure Of The Lexicon 158 Semantic Fields 159 The Thesaurus 160 Lexical Structure 162 12. Lexical Dimensions 172 The Loaded Lexicon 172 The Living Lexicon 180 The Dying And Dead Lexicon 186 Part III - English Grammar 191 13. Grammatical Mythology 192 Traditional Grammar 194 A Serious Subject 195 Prescriptive Grammar 196 The 20th-Century Legacy 198 The Main Branches of Grammar 199 14. The Structure of Words 200 Adjectives 201 Nouns 202 Numbers 202 Case 204 Verbs 206 15. Word Classes 208 Class Consciousness 209 The Class Of Nouns 210 The Class Of Pronouns 212 The Class Of Adjectives 213 The Class Of Adverbs 213 The Class Of Verbs 214 The Class Of Prepositions 215 The Class Of Conjunctions 215 16. The Structure Of Sentences 216 Types Of Sentence 218 Levels Of Sentence Structure 219 Sentence Functions 220 Clause Elements 222 Phrases 224 Verb Phrase Meanings 226 Multiple Sentences 228 Multiple Structures 229 Other Syntactic Issues 230 Adding a Comment 231 Reporting Speech 232 Sentence Information 233 Beyond The Sentence 234 The Paradox Of Grammar 235 Part IV - Spoken And Written English 237 17. The Sound System 237 The Vowels 239 Consonants 244 Syllables 248 Connected Speech 249 Prosody 250 Sound Symbolism 252 Pronunciation In Practice 256 18. The Writing System 258 The Alphabet 260 Properties Of Letters 267 Graphemic Symbolism 270 Analysing Handwriting 271 Graphetic Variety 272 Extra Graphic Dimensions 273 English Spelling 274 Spelling Reform 278 Punctuation 280 Punctuation Over Time 281 Punctuation Marks 284 Part V - Using English 287 19. Varieties Of Discourse 288 Constructing a Discourse 289 Microlinguistic Studies 290 Text And Varieties 292 Speech And Writing 293 Mixed Medium 294 Monologue And Dialogue 296 Unexpected Features Of Dialogue 297 Monologue Variations 298 Dialogue Variations 299 20. Regional Variation 300 International And Intranational 301 A Day In The Life Of The English Language 302 American And British English 308 Classifying Lexical Differences 310 Grammatical Differences 313 Regional Variation In American English 314 American Dialect Atlases 315 Dare 316 Urban Observations 318 Variation In British English 320 Dialect Of England: Traditional And Modern 326 Urban Grammar 328 Variation In Scotland 330 Early Trends 332 The Present-Day 335 Welsh English 336 The Reaction 337 Irish English 338 Dialect Divisions 339 Irish English Abroad 340 The Broader Scene 341 Canadian English 342 Unique Features 344 Canadian Dialects 345 Caribbean English 346 Creole Characteristics 348 Australian English 352 New Zealand English 356 Regional Variation 357 South African English 358 New Englishes: A Preliminary Sitting 360 New Forms 361 21. Social Variation 366 Requiescat In Pace 367 Prescriptive Attitudes 368 Gender Issues 370 The Speed Of Change 371 Occupational Varieties 372 Religious English 373 Scientific English 374 Clarifying Clarity 375 Legal English 376 Precision And Tradition 377 Knowledge Of The Law 378 Plain English 379 Political English 380 News Media English 382 Journalinguistic s 384 Broadcasting 386 Sports Commentary 388 Advertising English 390 Restricted English 392 New Varieties 394 22. Personal Variation 396 Deviance 397 Word Games 398 Rule-Breaking Varieties 402 The Edges Of Language 405 Verbal Humor 406 Humour In Structure 408 Comic Alphabets 409 Morphological Humour 410 Lexical Humour 410 Syntactic Humour 411 Discourse Humour 411 Variety Humour 412 A Very Peculiar Practice 413 Literary Freedom 414 A Linguistic Perspective 415 Phonetic Freedom 416 Phonological Freedom 417 Graphological Freedom 418 Visual Form 419 Grammatical Freedom 420 Lexical Freedom 421 Discourse Freedom 422 Variety Freedom 424 Demonstrating Identity 425 Part VI - Learning About English 427 23. Learning English As A Mother Tongue 428 The Development of Grammar 430 The Foundation Year 432 Speech Production 433 Intervention 434 Insufficient Language 434 24. New Ways Of Studying English 438 The Corpus Revolution 440 Dictionaries 444 Dictionary Giants 444 The Oxford English Dictionary 445 Sources And Resources 448 Appendices 449 I. Glossary 450 The Letter A 450 The Letters B,C 451 The Letters C,D 452 The Letters D,E 453 The Letters D,F,G 454 The Letters G,H,I 455 The Letters I,J,K,L 456 The Letters L,M,N 457 The Letters N,O,P 458 The Letters P,Q,R 459 The Letters R,S 460 The Letters S,T 461 The Letters T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z 462 II. Special Symbols And Abbreviations 463 III. References 464 Abbot -> Chiaro 464 Churchill -> Hancock 465 Hanks -> Mitford 466 Mittins -> Todd 467 Tolkien -> Zupitza 468 IV. Further Reading 469 V. Index Of Linguistic Items 472 A -> M 472 N -> Z 473 VI. Index Of Author And Personalities 474 A -> G 474 H -> R 475 S -> Z 476 VII. Index Of Topics 477 A,B 477 B,C 478 C,D,E 479 E,F,G 480 G,H,I, J,K 481 L,M 482 M,N,O,P 483 P 484 Q,R,S 485 S,T 486 T,U,V,WX,Y,Z 487 Aknowledgements 488