Encyclopedia of Creativity, Second Edition (Two-Volume Set)

How to go to your page ......Page 2 Tagcloud based on keywords, showing relative importance of these terms to creativity research ......Page 7 Contents ......Page 9 About the Editors-in-Chief ......Page 20 About the Executive Advisory Board ......Page 21 Preface ......Page 23 Audience ......Page 24 How to Use the Encyclopedia ......Page 27 Volume 1: A–I......Page 5 Introduction......Page 29 Origins of Acting......Page 30 The Director and Acting......Page 32 Major Acting Theories of Today......Page 33 Empirical Research Studies and Acting......Page 34 Concluding Remarks......Page 35 Further Reading......Page 36 Definitions of Adaptation and Adaptiveness......Page 37 Definitions of Creativity......Page 38 Theoretical Perspectives Related to Adaptation......Page 39 Intelligence and Creativity: A Convergence of Perspectives Around Issues of Adaptation to Novelty......Page 41 Assisting Adaptation: Facilitative Contexts and Environmental Support......Page 42 A Continuum of Adaptive Creative Behaviors......Page 43 Conclusions and Issues......Page 44 Further Reading......Page 45 Introduction......Page 46 The Visual Element in Advertising......Page 47 Visual Art: A Special Case of Visuals in Advertising......Page 48 A Typology of the Use of Visual Art in Advertising......Page 50 Summary......Page 51 Aesthetics and Creativity......Page 52 Form Versus Function in Aesthetics......Page 53 Creative Products......Page 54 Conclusion......Page 55 Further Reading......Page 56 The Definition of Creativity......Page 57 Four Developmental Subphases in the Mature Age......Page 58 The Creative Person’s Contact with the Inner Child......Page 59 Relevant Websites......Page 60 Creativity, Consciousness, and Culture......Page 61 Creativity and Psychedelic Substances......Page 62 Creativity and Reverie......Page 63 Creativity, Meditation, and Hypnosis......Page 64 Possible Mechanisms......Page 65 Further Reading......Page 67 Introduction......Page 68 A Theoretical Model and Set of Processes......Page 69 Modes of Inquiry......Page 70 Application......Page 72 Relevant Websites......Page 73 Introduction......Page 74 Striving for Novelty and Leading Ideas......Page 75 The Form-Function Dichotomy......Page 76 The Digital Shift......Page 77 Starchitects and Other Practitioners......Page 78 Further Reading......Page 79 Traditional Versus Modern Theories of Aesthetics......Page 80 Experimental Research on Aesthetics......Page 81 Cognitive Versus Perceptual Theories of Aesthetic Experience......Page 82 The Philosopher’s View of Aesthetics......Page 84 Further Reading......Page 85 Key Topics......Page 86 Background and Approaches......Page 88 Issues......Page 89 Future Research......Page 91 Further Reading......Page 92 Relevant Website......Page 93 Mednick’s Associative Theory......Page 94 Psychodynamic Perspectives on Associative Theory......Page 97 Mood and Associations......Page 98 Conclusion......Page 99 Three Levels of Asynchronicity......Page 100 Dichotomous Classification......Page 102 Asynchronicity Versus Person–Environment Fit......Page 103 Objective Assessment of Asynchronicity......Page 104 Further Reading......Page 105 Theoretical Considerations......Page 106 Conceptual Attention and Creativity: Research Findings......Page 107 Relevant Websites......Page 112 The Importance of Creativity to Organizations......Page 113 Research on Creativity Attitudes......Page 114 Macro Level Creativity Attitude Research......Page 115 Attitudes Are Needed to Make the Creative Process Work......Page 117 Multi-Dimensional Creativity Attitudes......Page 119 Changing Creativity Attitudes......Page 120 Linking Creativity Attitudes, Behaviors, and Skills in a Causal Model......Page 122 Relevant Website......Page 123 Dispositional Versus Situational Factors......Page 124 Further Elaborations......Page 127 Relevant Website......Page 128 Education in Britain......Page 129 Life in Baroda......Page 130 As a Revolutionary......Page 131 Settling in Pondicherry......Page 132 The Relation Between Yoga and Creativity......Page 133 Revelent Websites......Page 134 Introduction......Page 135 Illustrations......Page 136 Disadvantages......Page 138 Comparisons......Page 139 Integration......Page 140 Relevant Websites......Page 141 Learning and Habit......Page 143 Rules and Traditions......Page 144 Stimulating Creativity by Removing Mental Barriers......Page 145 Idea Squelchers......Page 146 Conclusions: Attitudes that Overcome Barriers......Page 148 Further Reading......Page 149 Early Years......Page 150 Transition......Page 151 Creative Climax......Page 153 Slow Disintegration......Page 154 Relevant websites......Page 155 Life, Career, and Works......Page 156 Beethoven and the Study of Creativity......Page 159 Conclusion......Page 161 Relevant Websites......Page 162 Behavioral and Problem-Solving Paradigms......Page 163 Selection as Problem......Page 164 Further Reading......Page 166 Background......Page 168 Further Reading......Page 169 Glossary......Page 170 Introduction......Page 171 Eminent Creativity and Mood Disorders: Considerations......Page 172 Everyday Creativity and Mood Disorders: Considerations......Page 173 Evolutionary Significance......Page 175 When Illness Yields Creativity: Two Models......Page 176 Further Reading......Page 177 Relevant Websites......Page 178 Birth Order and Evolutionary Psychology......Page 179 Birth Order and Personality......Page 180 Gender, Age Spacing, and Other Moderating Influences......Page 183 Birth Order, Openness to Experience, and Creativity......Page 184 Birth Order and Achievement......Page 186 Acknowledgments......Page 187 Further Reading......Page 188 Bohm and Oppenheimer......Page 189 Exile......Page 190 Krishnamurti......Page 191 The Super Implicate Order......Page 192 Bohm on Creativity......Page 193 Relevant Websites......Page 194 Neuroanatomy of Creativity: Cortical Structure......Page 195 Neurobiology of Creativity: Resting-State Brain Activity......Page 196 Neurobiology of Creativity: Task-Dependent Brain Activity......Page 197 Points of Convergence......Page 198 Further Reading......Page 199 The Early Life......Page 200 The Tapestry of Work and Life......Page 201 Further Reading......Page 202 The Role of Creativity in Business and Management......Page 203 Management and Creativity......Page 204 Areas of Business Creativity......Page 205 Creativity in the Wider Business Context......Page 207 Further Reading......Page 208 Relevant Websites......Page 209 Turning to Creativity......Page 213 Early Years......Page 210 Parallel Thought......Page 211 Further Reading......Page 212 An Advisor on Art and a Feminist......Page 214 Joining the Impressionists......Page 215 Degas and the Creative Imagination......Page 216 A Painter of Women and Children......Page 217 Relevant Websites......Page 218 Childhood and Adolescence......Page 219 Attempting to Make a Decision......Page 220 Pissarro and the Observation of Nature......Page 221 Cézanne’s Achievements......Page 222 Further Reading......Page 223 Potential Contributions of Chaos Theory to the Study of Creativity......Page 224 Applications of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems Theory to Creative Process and Product......Page 227 Specific Phenomena in the Creative Process......Page 230 Further Reading......Page 231 Relevant Websites......Page 232 Chaplin’s Life and Work......Page 233 Chaplin’s Creativity......Page 234 Summary and Contribution......Page 236 Further Reading......Page 237 Il était cense être – It Was Meant to Be......Page 238 La belle France – The Beautiful France......Page 239 La cuisine française – The French Cuisine......Page 240 Combinaison parfaite – Perfect Combination......Page 241 Toujours bon appetit! – Always Bon Appetit!......Page 242 Further Reading......Page 243 Paris and Rodin......Page 244 Camille’s Art......Page 245 Influences on Camille’s Creativity......Page 246 Relevant Websites......Page 248 Frameworks and Dimensions of Creative Climate......Page 249 Moderators......Page 252 Assessment and Interventions......Page 253 Conclusions......Page 254 The Construct of Cognitive Style and Its Validity......Page 255 Theories of Cognitive Styles and Their Relationship to Creativity......Page 257 Discussion and Future Directions......Page 260 Further Reading......Page 261 Relevant Websites......Page 262 Definition of Collaboration......Page 263 Challenges of Collaboration......Page 264 Theoretical Perspectives......Page 265 Relevant Websites......Page 266 Components Derived from Explicit Theories of Creativity......Page 267 General Aspects of Componential Theories......Page 268 Components of Creative Products......Page 270 Further Reading......Page 271 The Computer – Its Functions......Page 272 The Computer as Productivity Tools......Page 273 Creativity – Its Definitions......Page 274 Criteria for Establishing Creativity......Page 275 Approaches to Creativity......Page 276 Do Computers Think?......Page 277 Do Computers Enhance Creativity or Destroy Creativity?......Page 278 Summary and Conclusion......Page 279 Further Reading......Page 280 Relevant Websites......Page 281 Defining Conformity......Page 282 Conformist Forces Within Situations......Page 283 Conformist Forces Imported into Personality......Page 284 Creative Personality Development as the Overcoming of Conformist Tendencies......Page 285 Further Reading......Page 286 Introduction: Confucius and Confucianism......Page 287 Brief History and Development of Confucianism......Page 288 The Confucian Texts: The Five Classics and the Four Books......Page 289 The Confucian Teachings......Page 290 Confucianism as a Conservative Force against Creativity......Page 291 Confucianism and Creative Building on the Past......Page 292 Relevant Websites......Page 293 The Unique Assessment Concerns of Creativity Researchers......Page 294 Systematizing the Consensual Assessment Technique in Creativity Research......Page 295 Refining the CAT......Page 296 Taking a Closer Look......Page 298 Conclusions......Page 300 Relevant Websites......Page 301 Rationale for Contrarianism......Page 302 Contrarianism in the Service of Creativity......Page 303 Further Reading......Page 304 Introduction......Page 305 Predicting the Functional Characteristics of Creative Environments from an Understanding of Creative Processes and Episodes......Page 306 Constructed and Sought-Out Environments......Page 309 Caveats......Page 312 Further Reading......Page 313 Introduction......Page 314 Brief History......Page 315 Measurement......Page 316 Conceptual Issues......Page 319 Further Reading......Page 321 Relevant Websites......Page 322 Introduction......Page 323 The Work of Richard Florida......Page 324 Government Policy Inspired by the Creative Class Idea......Page 325 Critiques of Florida......Page 326 Wider Issues of a Creative Class or Sector......Page 327 Relevant Websites......Page 328 Defining Trajectories......Page 329 Age Curves: Typical Creative Trajectory Patterns......Page 330 Development of Creative Trajectories......Page 331 Further Reading......Page 332 Defining Creativity......Page 333 Diverse Influences on and Expressions of Creativity......Page 334 Parsimonious Creativity......Page 335 Further Reading......Page 336 Creativity in Science......Page 337 Further Reading......Page 342 Relevant Websites......Page 343 Early Observations......Page 344 Nineteenth Century Creativity......Page 345 First Half of the Twentieth Century......Page 346 Second Half of the Twentieth Century: 1950–1985......Page 348 Second Half of the Twentieth Century: 1980 to Present......Page 350 Further Reading......Page 351 A Brief History of Creativity Training......Page 352 Training Variables......Page 353 Effective Creativity Training Interventions......Page 354 Conclusion......Page 358 Creativity, Conformity, and Rebellion......Page 359 Exemplary Cases......Page 360 The Zeitgeist and the Individual......Page 361 Crime, Creativity, and Paradigms......Page 362 Relevant Websites......Page 363 Critical Thinking in Relation to Creativity......Page 364 Critical Thinking in Education......Page 365 Relevant Websites......Page 366 Making Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Creativity......Page 367 ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ Perspectives on Creativity......Page 369 Perspectives of Indigenous Creativity Researchers......Page 370 Conclusion......Page 374 Relevant Websites......Page 375 Creativity and Cultural Diversity......Page 376 Theoretical and Research Perspectives......Page 377 Identification......Page 380 Educational Implications......Page 381 Further Reading......Page 382 Background......Page 384 Creativity And Eminence......Page 385 Further Reading......Page 386 Dance and Embodiment......Page 393 Historical Biography......Page 387 Rivalry with Michaelangelo......Page 388 Paradox 0f his Personality......Page 389 Left Brain–Right Brain Split......Page 390 Nature of Integrated Paired Sense of Sight and Hearing......Page 391 Conclusion......Page 392 Choreography......Page 394 Creativity and Neurobiology......Page 395 Dance and Neurobiology......Page 396 Dance, Creativity, and Research......Page 397 Further Reading......Page 399 Relevant Websites......Page 400 Introduction......Page 401 Creativity and Business......Page 402 Characterizing the Dark Side of Creativity......Page 403 The Four Ps of Creativity and the Dark Side......Page 404 Concluding Remarks......Page 406 Relevant Websites......Page 407 Childhood and Early Adolescence: Discovering the Wonders of Natural History......Page 408 Late Adolescence: A Turning Point......Page 409 The Fruitful use of Analogy: Conceiving of Natural Selection......Page 410 After Origin: Concluding a Creative Life......Page 411 Further Reading......Page 412 The Changing Understanding of Creativity......Page 413 Basic Theoretical Issues......Page 414 Creativity as a Social Phenomenon......Page 418 The Psychological Basis of Creativity......Page 419 The Psychological Paradoxes of Creativity......Page 420 The Dark Side of Creativity......Page 421 Relevant Websites......Page 423 What Is Design Creativity?......Page 424 Locations of Design Creativity......Page 425 Interactions in Design Creativity......Page 428 Relevant Website......Page 430 Development as Experience......Page 431 Strategies, Flexibility, and Assumptions......Page 432 Further Reading......Page 433 Issues and Implications......Page 434 Relevant Websites......Page 437 Thesis–Antithesis–Synthesis Process of Dialectic Thinking......Page 438 Dialectical Thinking and Postformal Thinking......Page 439 Dialectical Thinking and Creative Thinking......Page 440 Relevant Websites......Page 441 Background......Page 442 Further Reading......Page 445 Definitions of Discovery......Page 446 Who Discovers......Page 447 How Discoveries Are Made......Page 448 What Is Discovered......Page 450 Why Discoveries Are Made......Page 451 Multiple or Simultaneous Discoveries......Page 452 Discovery Outside of the Sciences......Page 453 An Evolutionary Theory of Discovery......Page 454 Further Reading......Page 455 Causes of Positive Skew......Page 456 Diffusion of Creative Ideas......Page 457 Further Reading......Page 458 Tests and Example Questions......Page 459 Task Differences and Additional Tests......Page 460 Psychometric Issues......Page 461 Relevant Websites......Page 462 Domains and Domain Specificity......Page 463 Evidence for Domains of Creativity......Page 464 Common Misunderstandings About Domain Specificity: The Puzzle of Polymaths......Page 465 Conclusions and Implications......Page 466 Further Reading......Page 467 Glossary......Page 468 Creativity, Dreams, and Culture......Page 469 Research on Creativity and Dreams......Page 470 Possible Mechanisms......Page 471 Relevant website......Page 473 Supernatural Creativity: Ancient Western and Eastern Views......Page 474 Human Creativity: Modern Western and Eastern Conceptions......Page 476 Contemporary Studies on the Conceptions of Creativity and Creative Performance......Page 477 Basis for the East–West Differences: Culture and Cognition......Page 479 Relevant Websites......Page 480 The Victorian Era......Page 481 Characteristics of Contemporary Eccentrics......Page 482 Mental Disorder and Eccentricity......Page 483 Creativity and Eccentricity......Page 485 Further Reading......Page 486 Psychoeconomics of Creativity......Page 488 The Economics of New Ideas......Page 491 Conclusions......Page 493 Approaches to Creativity in Education......Page 494 Creative Problem Solving......Page 496 Conclusions......Page 497 Further Reading......Page 498 Relevant Websites......Page 499 Early Years......Page 500 University Years......Page 501 Further Reading......Page 502 Significance......Page 503 Measurement......Page 504 Determinants......Page 505 Further Reading......Page 509 Relevant Website......Page 510 Definitions of Emotion and Affect......Page 511 Theories of Affect and Creativity......Page 512 Play, Affect, and Creativity......Page 515 Neurological Processes, Affect, and Creativity......Page 516 Conclusion......Page 517 What Exactly Can Be Enhanced?......Page 518 Affective Components......Page 519 Interpersonal Components......Page 520 Increasing Creativity Test Scores......Page 521 Further Reading......Page 522 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs......Page 523 Creativity and Innovation in Entrepreneurship......Page 524 Creativity in Entrepreneurial Teams......Page 525 The Role of Creativity Training in Entrepreneurship......Page 526 Cultural Diversity in Entrepreneurial Teams......Page 527 Further Reading......Page 528 Relevant Websites......Page 529 What Is Everyday Creativity?......Page 530 Can Everyday Creativity Be Good for Us?......Page 532 Does Creativity Involve Diverse States of Consciousness?......Page 534 Seeking ‘Creative Normalcy’......Page 535 Conclusions......Page 536 Relevant Website......Page 537 Introduction......Page 538 Organization......Page 539 Insight and Problem Solving......Page 540 Relevant websites......Page 541 Background......Page 542 A Scientific Framework for Understanding Creativity Exercises......Page 543 Exercises that Boost Individual Creativity......Page 544 Exercises That Help Managers to Enhance Creativity in Others......Page 546 Further Reading......Page 549 Overview: Expertise and Expert Performance......Page 550 The Alternative Account: Expertise as Acquired Knowledge and Skill......Page 551 The Structure of Expert Performance......Page 555 Further Reading......Page 558 The Development of the Expressive Arts Therapy Approach......Page 559 Expressive Arts Therapy Methods......Page 561 Conclusion......Page 563 Family Characteristics......Page 565 Stress......Page 567 Complex Families......Page 569 Further Reading......Page 570 Introduction......Page 571 Impact Criteria......Page 572 Criteria Predictors......Page 573 Discussion......Page 575 Relevant Websites......Page 577 Ella Fitzgerald: The Life......Page 578 LPs and Songbooks......Page 579 Marriages and Children......Page 580 The Rhythm......Page 581 Racism......Page 582 Relevant Websites......Page 583 Introduction......Page 584 Flow in Artistic Activities......Page 585 Feelings of People in Flow Condition......Page 587 Assessment of Flow......Page 588 Applications of Flow......Page 589 Relevant Websites......Page 590 Food and Creativity......Page 591 Creative Cuisine and Recipe......Page 592 Creative Culinary Process......Page 593 Factors Influencing Food Creativity......Page 594 Further Reading......Page 595 The Four Ps......Page 596 Products......Page 597 Persuasion......Page 598 Further Reading......Page 599 Background......Page 600 The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis......Page 601 Psychoanalysis: The Middle Years......Page 602 Psychoanalysis: The Later Years......Page 603 Further Reading......Page 604 Collaboration and Friendship......Page 605 A Look at One Domain: Music and Friendship......Page 606 Benefits and Problems in Friendships of Creators......Page 607 Future Research on Friendship and Creativity......Page 608 Introduction......Page 610 In the Wilds of Africa......Page 611 Back Home to India......Page 612 Gandhi’s Creative Vision......Page 613 Concept of Truth......Page 614 Gandhi in Action: Rise to the Mahatmaship......Page 615 Four Gandhis......Page 616 Further Reading......Page 617 Introduction......Page 618 Do Differences Exist?......Page 619 Explaining the Differences......Page 620 Conclusions......Page 623 Further Reading......Page 624 An Introduction into Behavioral Genetics......Page 625 Short Introduction into Molecular Genetics......Page 626 Association Studies from Molecular Genetics......Page 627 Problems and Perspectives......Page 629 Further Reading......Page 630 Genius......Page 631 Greatness......Page 633 Convergence......Page 634 Divergence......Page 635 Further Reading......Page 636 Relevant Websites......Page 637 Traditional and Untraditional Views......Page 638 Cultural Views......Page 639 Implications......Page 640 Relevant Websites......Page 641 Group Processes......Page 642 Group Idea Generation......Page 643 Leadership......Page 644 Team Innovation......Page 645 Phases of Group Creativity......Page 646 Relevant Website......Page 647 Joseph Haydn 1732–1809......Page 648 Creativity and Politics......Page 649 Creativity and Diplomacy......Page 650 Creativity and Motivation......Page 651 Creativity and Spirituality......Page 652 Haydn the Consummate Creator......Page 653 Relevant Website......Page 654 Graphology, Personality, and Culture......Page 655 Creativity, Thought, and the Brain......Page 656 Dysgraphia and the Split Brain......Page 657 Alexithymia, Creativity, and the Split Brain......Page 658 From Graphology to Graphonomics......Page 660 Relevant Websites......Page 661 Background......Page 662 The Bryn Mawr Years......Page 663 Lows and Highs of Kate’s Career During the 1930s......Page 664 Kate’s Rise to Fame in the 1940s and 1950s......Page 665 Katharine Hepburn and Creativity......Page 666 Relevant Websites......Page 667 Knowledge, Processes, and Strategies......Page 668 Conclusions......Page 673 The Bicameral Mind......Page 675 Paganism Versus Fundamentalist Religion: The Greeks......Page 676 Paganism Versus Fundamentalist Religion: The Medieval Europeans......Page 677 The Renaissance and the Beginnings of Humanism......Page 678 The Age of Enlightenment and a Flourishing Humanism......Page 679 The Debate over Associationist and Gestalt Views......Page 680 Nineteenth Century Biology of the Brain......Page 681 Nature and Nurture......Page 682 Relevant Websites......Page 683 Comparisons......Page 684 History......Page 685 Evaluation......Page 686 Conclusion......Page 688 Relevant Websites......Page 689 Biography......Page 690 Hopper, Computers, and Computer Science......Page 691 Grace Hopper and Creativity......Page 693 Further Reading......Page 694 Similarity of Definition......Page 695 Survey of Research......Page 698 Discussion......Page 700 Relevant Websites......Page 702 Pretend Play, Simulation, and Emotion......Page 704 Narrative, Fiction, and Testimony......Page 706 Mind Wandering and Mental Time Travel......Page 707 Imagination and Autism Spectrum Disorders......Page 709 Further Reading......Page 710 Methods Used in the Study of Implicit Theories......Page 711 Empirical Research on Implicit Theories and Group Differences......Page 712 Further Reading......Page 713 Introduction......Page 714 Theater Improvisation......Page 715 Musical Improvisation......Page 716 Summary......Page 718 Further Reading......Page 719 Theories of Incubation......Page 720 Empirical Research on Incubation Effects......Page 722 Principles of Incubation......Page 723 Further Reading......Page 724 Defining Innovation......Page 725 Innovation Factors......Page 726 Innovation’s Effects......Page 730 Innovation as a Systems Process......Page 731 Further Reading......Page 732 Relevant Websites......Page 733 The Nature of Insight......Page 734 The Features of Insight......Page 735 The Cognitive Mechanisms of Insight......Page 737 Further Reading......Page 738 Relevant Website......Page 739 Theories of Intelligence which Encompass Creativity......Page 740 Theories of Creativity that Encompass Intelligence......Page 741 Further Reading......Page 743 Vocation-Based Interest Inventories......Page 744 Education-Based Creative Interest Inventories......Page 747 Research-Based Creative Interest Inventories......Page 748 Conclusions......Page 749 Decision Making......Page 750 Are There Different Forms of Intuition?......Page 751 Intuition and Entrepreneurship......Page 752 Mood and Intuition......Page 753 Processes Underlying Representative Views of Intuition......Page 754 Relevant Websites......Page 755 What Is Invention?......Page 756 Factors Influencing Invention......Page 757 Cognitive Processes in Invention......Page 758 Heuristics in Invention......Page 759 Collaboration in Invention......Page 761 Further Reading......Page 762 Volume 2: J–Z......Page 765 Empirical Studies......Page 789 Janusian Process in Science......Page 790 Homospatial Process......Page 791 Homospatial Process in Literature, Art, and Music......Page 792 Sepconic Articulation......Page 793 Sepconic Articulation in Science......Page 794 Phases of Janusian, Homospatial and Sepconic Articulation Processes......Page 795 Further Reading......Page 796 Relevant Website......Page 797 Background......Page 798 The Work......Page 799 Relevant Website......Page 801 Carl Gustav Jung – The Man......Page 802 Model of the Mind......Page 803 Artistic Creation......Page 805 Summary......Page 807 Further Reading......Page 808 Frida’s Early Years......Page 809 Self Portraits......Page 810 Her Marriage to Diego Rivera......Page 811 The Psychological, Cultural Political, and Archetypal Symbols in Frida’s Creative Process......Page 812 Recognition Today......Page 813 Relevant Websites......Page 814 Knowledge......Page 815 Influences of Knowledge......Page 816 Types of Knowledge......Page 818 Acquiring Knowledge......Page 819 Conclusions......Page 820 Hans Adolf Krebs 1900–1981......Page 822 Post-War Career......Page 823 Patterns of Creative Activity......Page 824 Lifetime Productivity......Page 826 Further Reading......Page 827 Glossary......Page 828 Combinatory Freedom, Predigital Sampling, and Creativity......Page 830 Group Artistic Creativity and Lifespan Productivity......Page 831 Filmography of Akira Kurosawa (Japanese Release Dates)......Page 832 Relevant Websites......Page 833 Leadership......Page 835 Leadership Capability......Page 838 Relevant Websites......Page 840 Types of Creative Productivity......Page 841 Age and Creativity......Page 842 Exceptions to the General Trends......Page 844 Toward a Typology of Creative Life Stages......Page 846 How Common Are Different Typologies of Creative Life Stages?......Page 847 Further Reading......Page 848 Relevant Website......Page 849 What Is Logic?......Page 850 What Is Reasoning?......Page 851 The Relationship Between Logic and Reasoning......Page 852 Further Reading......Page 855 Methodological Challenges......Page 856 Classic and Major Longitudinal Studies......Page 857 Identification and Predictive Validity......Page 858 Conditions for Creative Productivity......Page 859 Future Directions in Longitudinal Research on Creativity......Page 860 Relevant Website......Page 861 Introduction......Page 863 Speculations on the Mental State of Creative Individuals Prior to the Romantic Age......Page 864 The Romantics’ Redefinition of Genius and the Functions It Tended to Serve......Page 865 Psychology, Physician-Psychiatrists, and the Clinical Association of Genius and Madness......Page 866 Implications for the Contemporary Debate......Page 867 Further Reading......Page 868 Matthew Effect......Page 869 Pygmalion Effect......Page 872 Founder Effect......Page 874 Further Reading......Page 875 Introduction......Page 876 Parentification and Creativity......Page 877 Coming of Age in Samoa......Page 878 Stranded on a Mountain Top......Page 879 The ‘Quantum Leap’ and Other Ventures......Page 880 Relevant Websites......Page 881 Sensory Memory and Creativity......Page 882 Working Memory and Creativity......Page 883 Long Term Memory and Creativity......Page 884 Conclusions......Page 886 Relevant Websites......Page 887 Introduction......Page 888 Genius and Madness......Page 889 Affective Symptoms and Disorders......Page 890 A More Fine-Grained View......Page 892 More Complicated Models......Page 893 Implications for Treatment......Page 894 Relevant Websites......Page 895 Mentors and Creativity......Page 896 Mentoring Programs......Page 898 Relevant Websites......Page 900 Definitions of Metacognition......Page 901 Methods and Techniques Used in Analyzing Metacognition......Page 902 Metacognition and Giftedness......Page 904 Can Metacognition Be Trained?......Page 905 Relevant Websites......Page 906 Metaphors for Creative Thought......Page 907 Understanding Metaphorical Language......Page 908 Constraints on Metaphorical Creativity......Page 909 Enhancing Creativity Through Metaphor......Page 911 Further Reading......Page 912 Relevant Website......Page 913 Introduction......Page 914 Michelangelo and Creativity......Page 918 Relevant Websites......Page 919 Mindless and Mindful States......Page 920 The Phenomenology of Mindful and Mindless States......Page 922 Mindful Approaches to the World: Some Links to the Philosophy of Knowledge......Page 924 Mindfulness, Creation, and Discovery......Page 927 Relevant Websites......Page 929 Mastery: Inventing and Reinventing Impression......Page 930 Concluding Questions......Page 932 Further Reading......Page 933 The Nature of Morals......Page 934 Immoral Creativity......Page 935 Immorality Inherent in Creativity......Page 936 Moral Creativity......Page 937 How Can Moral Creativity Be Fostered?......Page 938 Further Reading......Page 939 Relevant Websites......Page 940 Personality Traits of Highly Creative Individuals......Page 941 Emotion as Energizing Creative Passion......Page 942 Reinforcing Creative Efforts......Page 943 Intrinsic Motivation How to go to your page 2 Tagcloud based on keywords, showing relative importance of these terms to creativity research 7 Contents 9 About the Editors-in-Chief 20 About the Executive Advisory Board 21 Preface 23 Contents 24 Audience 24 How to Use the Encyclopedia 27 Volume 1: A–I 5 A 29 Acting 29 Glossary 29 Introduction 29 Origins of Acting 30 Acting Theory 32 The Director and Acting 32 Major Acting Theories of Today 33 Empirical Research Studies and Acting 34 Concluding Remarks 35 Relevant Websites 36 Further Reading 36 Adaptation, Adaptiveness, and Creativity 37 Glossary 37 Definitions of Adaptation and Adaptiveness 37 Definitions of Creativity 38 Theoretical Perspectives Related to Adaptation 39 Research and Scholarship on Adaptation and Creativity: Style, Expertise, and Chance 41 Intelligence and Creativity: A Convergence of Perspectives Around Issues of Adaptation to Novelty 41 Assisting Adaptation: Facilitative Contexts and Environmental Support 42 A Continuum of Adaptive Creative Behaviors 43 Conclusions and Issues 44 Further Reading 45 Advertising with Art: Creative Visuals 46 Glossary 46 Introduction 46 The Visual Element in Advertising 47 Visual Art: A Special Case of Visuals in Advertising 48 A Typology of the Use of Visual Art in Advertising 50 Further Reading 51 Relevant Websites 51 Summary 51 Aesthetics and Creativity 52 Glossary 52 The Nature of Aesthetics 52 Aesthetics and Creativity 52 Aesthetic Judgments 53 Aesthetic Products 53 Form Versus Function in Aesthetics 53 Useful Products 54 Creative Products 54 A Universal Aesthetic of Creativity 55 Conclusion 55 Relevant Websites 56 Further Reading 56 Aging 57 Introduction 57 The Life Span Developmental Model of Creativity 57 The Definition of Creativity 57 New Conceptions of the Brain and of Creativity in the Latter Part of Life 58 Four Developmental Subphases in the Mature Age 58 A System’s Perspective on Creativity 59 The Creative Person’s Contact with the Inner Child 59 Further Reading 60 Conclusions 60 Relevant Websites 60 Altered and Transitional States 61 Glossary 61 Creativity, Consciousness, and Culture 61 Creativity and Psychedelic Substances 62 Creativity and Reverie 63 Creativity, Meditation, and Hypnosis 64 Possible Mechanisms 65 Further Reading 67 Analogies 68 Glossary 68 Introduction 68 A Theoretical Model and Set of Processes 69 Modes of Inquiry 70 Application 72 Further Reading 73 Relevant Websites 73 Architecture 74 Glossary 74 Introduction 74 Leading Ideas: Self-Conscious Architectural Design 75 Styles and Paradigmatic Shifts 75 Striving for Novelty and Leading Ideas 75 The Form-Function Dichotomy 76 The Digital Shift 77 Starchitects and Other Practitioners 78 Architectural Education 79 Further Reading 79 Art and Aesthetics 80 Glossary 80 Introduction 80 Traditional Versus Modern Theories of Aesthetics 80 Current Conceptualizations of Creativity 81 Experimental Research on Aesthetics 81 Cognitive Versus Perceptual Theories of Aesthetic Experience 82 The Philosopher’s View of Aesthetics 84 Further Reading 85 Art, Artists, and Arts Audiences: Their Implications for the Psychology of Creativity 86 Glossary 86 Introduction: The Larger Context 86 Key Topics 86 Background and Approaches 88 What Has Been Learned? 89 Issues 89 Future Research 91 Conclusions: The Reciprocity of Knowledge 92 Further Reading 92 Relevant Website 93 Associative Theory 94 Glossary 94 Historical Foundations 94 Mednick’s Associative Theory 94 Psychodynamic Perspectives on Associative Theory 97 Brainstorming 98 Mood and Associations 98 Further Reading 99 Conclusion 99 Asynchronicity 100 Glossary 100 Introduction 100 Three Levels of Asynchronicity 100 Dichotomous Classification 102 Unproductive Asynchronicity 103 Asynchronicity Versus Person–Environment Fit 103 Asynchronicity in Practice 104 Objective Assessment of Asynchronicity 104 Conclusion 105 Further Reading 105 Attention 106 Glossary 106 Theoretical Considerations 106 Conceptual Attention and Creativity: Research Findings 107 Further Reading 112 Conclusion 112 Relevant Websites 112 Attitudes and Creativity 113 Glossary 113 What Are Attitudes? 113 The Importance of Creativity to Organizations 113 Organizational Creativity as a Process Requiring Positive Attitudes 114 Research on Creativity Attitudes 114 Empirical Micro Level Creativity Attitude Research 115 Macro Level Creativity Attitude Research 115 Attitudes Are Needed to Make the Creative Process Work 117 Development of Micro Level Creativity Attitudes and Measures 119 Multi-Dimensional Creativity Attitudes 119 Optimal Ideation–Evaluation Attitudinal Ratios 120 Changing Creativity Attitudes 120 Cross-Cultural Research on Creativity Attitude Change 122 Future Research 122 Linking Creativity Attitudes, Behaviors, and Skills in a Causal Model 122 Further Reading 123 Relevant Website 123 Attribution and Creativity 124 Glossary 124 Introduction 124 Background 124 Dispositional Versus Situational Factors 124 Further Elaborations 127 Conclusion 128 Evaluation 128 Further Reading 128 Relevant Website 128 Sri Aurobindo 1872–1950: A Yogi and a Poet 129 Introduction and Early Childhood 129 Education in Britain 129 Life in Baroda 130 As a Revolutionary 131 Settling in Pondicherry 132 Self-Confinement 133 The Relation Between Yoga and Creativity 133 Further Reading 134 Revelent Websites 134 Awards 135 Glossary 135 Introduction 135 Advantages 136 Illustrations 136 Disadvantages 138 Comparisons 139 Integration 140 Further Reading 141 Relevant Websites 141 B 143 Barriers to Creativity and Creative Attitudes 143 Glossary 143 Barriers to Creativity 143 Learning and Habit 143 Perceptual Barriers 144 Rules and Traditions 144 Emotional Barriers 145 Cultural Barriers 145 Resource Barriers 145 Stimulating Creativity by Removing Mental Barriers 145 Creative Attitudes 146 Idea Squelchers 146 Negative Traits of Creativity 148 Creativity, Psychoses, Neuroses, and Sociopathy 148 Conclusions: Attitudes that Overcome Barriers 148 Further Reading 149 The Beatles 150 Early Years 150 Transition 151 Creative Climax 153 Slow Disintegration 154 Further Reading 155 Relevant websites 155 Ludwig van Beethoven 1770–1827 156 Glossary 156 Introduction 156 Life, Career, and Works 156 Beethoven and the Study of Creativity 159 Conclusion 161 Further Reading 162 Relevant Websites 162 Behavioral Approaches to Creativity 163 Glossary 163 Behavioral and Problem-Solving Paradigms 163 Selection as Solution 164 Selection as Problem 164 Concluding Caveat 166 Summary Conclusion 166 Further Reading 166 Alexander Graham Bell 1847–1922 168 The Telephone 168 Background 168 Other Inventions 169 Teacher and Mentor 169 Further Reading 169 Bipolar Mood Disorders 170 Glossary 170 Introduction 171 Eminent Creativity and Mood Disorders: Considerations 172 Everyday Creativity and Mood Disorders: Considerations 173 Evolutionary Significance 175 When Illness Yields Creativity: Two Models 176 Conclusions and Recommendations 177 Further Reading 177 Relevant Websites 178 Birth Order 179 Glossary 179 Birth Order and Evolutionary Psychology 179 Birth Order and Personality 180 Gender, Age Spacing, and Other Moderating Influences 183 Birth Order, Openness to Experience, and Creativity 184 Birth Order and Achievement 186 Conclusion 187 Acknowledgments 187 Further Reading 188 David Bohm 1917–1992 189 Childhood 189 Bohm and Oppenheimer 189 Quantum Theory 190 Transformation of Society and the Individual 190 Hidden Variables 190 Plasmas in Metals 190 Exile 190 A New Order for Physics 191 The Quantum Potential 191 Krishnamurti 191 Dialog 192 Creativity 192 The Super Implicate Order 192 Bohm and Language 193 Bohm on Creativity 193 Further Reading 194 Relevant Websites 194 Brain and Neuropsychology 195 Glossary 195 Introduction 195 Neuroanatomy of Creativity: Cortical Structure 195 Neurobiology of Creativity: Resting-State Brain Activity 196 Neurobiology of Creativity: Task-Dependent Brain Activity 197 Points of Convergence 198 Further Reading 199 The Brontë Sisters Charlotte Brontë (Currer Bell) 1816–1855 Anne Brontë (Acton Bell) 1818–1848 Emily Brontë (Ellis Bell) 182 200 The Early Life 200 The Tapestry of Work and Life 201 Relationship to Creativity 202 Further Reading 202 Business/Management 203 Glossary 203 The Role of Creativity in Business and Management 203 Management and Creativity 204 Individual Workers 205 Areas of Business Creativity 205 Creativity in the Wider Business Context 207 Conclusions 208 Further Reading 208 Relevant Websites 209 C 213 Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) 1832–1898 210 Oxford 210 Photography and Alice 210 Early Years 210 Parallel Thought 211 Conclusion 212 Further Reading 212 Mary Cassatt 1844–1926 213 Background and Family 213 Turning to Creativity 213 An Artist in Europe 214 An Advisor on Art and a Feminist 214 Family Responsibilities 215 Joining the Impressionists 215 Degas, a Mentor in Art 216 Beyond Impressionism 216 Degas and the Creative Imagination 216 Public Response and Growing Fame 217 A Painter of Women and Children 217 Further Reading 218 Her Later Years 218 Relevant Websites 218 Paul Cézanne 1839–1906 219 Childhood and Adolescence 219 Early Development as a Painter 220 Attempting to Make a Decision 220 Pissarro and the Observation of Nature 221 Mature Styles 222 Cézanne’s Achievements 222 Further Reading 223 Chaos Theory and Creativity 224 Glossary 224 Introduction 224 Definition of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems 224 Potential Contributions of Chaos Theory to the Study of Creativity 224 Applications of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems Theory to Creative Process and Product 227 Specific Phenomena in the Creative Process 230 Conclusion 231 Further Reading 231 Relevant Websites 232 Charlie Chaplin 1889–1977 233 Chaplin’s Life and Work 233 Chaplin’s Creativity 234 Summary and Contribution 236 Relevant Websites 237 Further Reading 237 Julia Child 1912–2004 238 Au début – In the Beginning 238 La jeunesse Julia – The Young Julia 238 Il était cense être – It Was Meant to Be 238 La belle France – The Beautiful France 239 La cuisine française – The French Cuisine 240 Nouveau á la maison – Home Again 241 Combinaison parfaite – Perfect Combination 241 Un nouveau debut – A New Beginning 242 Toujours bon appetit! – Always Bon Appetit! 242 Related Websites 243 Further Reading 243 Camille Claudel 1864–1943 244 Background 244 Early Life and Family 244 Paris and Rodin 244 Descent and Confinement 245 Camille’s Art 245 Camille and Paul 246 Influences on Camille’s Creativity 246 Further Reading 248 Mystery and Gamble 248 Relevant Websites 248 Climate for Creativity 249 Glossary 249 Introduction 249 Frameworks and Dimensions of Creative Climate 249 Outcomes of Climate for Creativity 252 Moderators 252 Assessment and Interventions 253 Further Reading 254 Conclusions 254 Cognitive Style and Creativity 255 Glossary 255 The Construct of Cognitive Style and Its Validity 255 Theories of Cognitive Styles and Their Relationship to Creativity 257 Discussion and Future Directions 260 Further Reading 261 Relevant Websites 262 Collaboration 263 Glossary 263 Definition of Collaboration 263 Challenges of Collaboration 264 Methodological Approaches 265 Theoretical Perspectives 265 Conclusions 266 Further Reading 266 Relevant Websites 266 Componential Models of Creativity 267 Glossary 267 Definition of Componential Models 267 Components Derived from Folk (Implicit) Conceptions of Creativity 267 Components Derived from Explicit Theories of Creativity 267 General Aspects of Componential Theories 268 Domain Generality Versus Domain Specificity of Components of Creativity 270 Components of Creative Products 270 Conclusion 271 Further Reading 271 Computers and Creativity 272 Glossary 272 Introduction 272 The Computer – Its Functions 272 Computers – Its Application 273 The Computer as Productivity Tools 273 Creativity – Its Definitions 274 Criteria for Establishing Creativity 275 Approaches to Creativity 276 Computers and Creativity 277 Do Computers Think? 277 Do Computers Think Creatively? 278 Do Computers Enhance Creativity or Destroy Creativity? 278 Summary and Conclusion 279 Further Reading 280 Relevant Websites 281 Conformity 282 Glossary 282 Defining Conformity 282 Why Conformity and Creativity ‘Don’t Mix’ 283 Conformist Forces Within Situations 283 Conformist Forces Imported into Personality 284 Recent Priming and Small Group Research Relevant to Creativity and Conformity 285 Creative Personality Development as the Overcoming of Conformist Tendencies 285 Conclusion 286 Further Reading 286 Confucianism 287 Glossary 287 Introduction: Confucius and Confucianism 287 Brief History and Development of Confucianism 288 The Confucian Texts: The Five Classics and the Four Books 289 The Confucian Teachings 290 Confucianism as a Conservative Force against Creativity 291 Confucianism and Creative Building on the Past 292 Further Reading 293 Relevant Websites 293 Consensual Assessment 294 Glossary 294 Introduction 294 The Unique Assessment Concerns of Creativity Researchers 294 Early Applications of Consensual Assessment 295 Systematizing the Consensual Assessment Technique in Creativity Research 295 Refining the CAT 296 Taking a Closer Look 298 Some Recent Developments 300 Conclusions 300 Further Reading 301 Relevant Websites 301 Contrarianism and Creativity 302 Glossary 302 Introduction 302 Persons Who Have Used Contrarian Strategies 302 Rationale for Contrarianism 302 Contrarianism in the Service of Creativity 303 Creativity as Postconventional Contrarianism 304 Further Reading 304 Creative Environments, Conditions, and Settings 305 Glossary 305 Introduction 305 A Conceptual Framework 306 Predicting the Functional Characteristics of Creative Environments from an Understanding of Creative Processes and Episodes 306 Constructed and Sought-Out Environments 309 Caveats 312 Relevant Websites 313 Further Reading 313 Creative Products 314 Glossary 314 Introduction 314 Brief History 315 Measurement 316 Conceptual Issues 319 Looking to the Future 321 Further Reading 321 Relevant Websites 322 The Creative Sector and Class of Society 323 Glossary 323 Introduction 323 The Work of Richard Florida 324 Government Policy Inspired by the Creative Class Idea 325 Critiques of Florida 326 Wider Issues of a Creative Class or Sector 327 Further Reading 328 Conclusion 328 Relevant Websites 328 Creative Trajectories 329 Glossary 329 Creative Trajectories 329 Socio-Economic Context for Creative Trajectories Development 329 Defining Trajectories 329 Educational Trajectories 330 Confluences of Factors 330 Two Major Creative Trajectories: Poles on a Continuum 330 Age Curves: Typical Creative Trajectory Patterns 330 Development of Creative Trajectories 331 Conclusion 332 Further Reading 332 Creativity Complex 333 Glossary 333 Introduction 333 Defining Creativity 333 Diverse Influences on and Expressions of Creativity 334 Parsimonious Creativity 335 Conclusions 336 Further Reading 336 Creativity in Science 337 Glossary 337 The Science of Scientific Creativity 337 Creativity in Science 337 Conclusion 342 Further Reading 342 Relevant Websites 343 Creativity Through History 344 Glossary 344 Disciplines that Study Creativity 344 Early Observations 344 Nineteenth Century Creativity 345 First Half of the Twentieth Century 346 Second Half of the Twentieth Century: 1950–1985 348 Summary 350 Second Half of the Twentieth Century: 1980 to Present 350 Further Reading 351 Creativity Training 352 Using Training to Increase Creative Thinking 352 A Brief History of Creativity Training 352 Training Variables 353 Effective Creativity Training Interventions 354 Further Reading 358 Conclusion 358 Crime and Creativity 359 Glossary 359 Types of Criminality 359 Creativity, Conformity, and Rebellion 359 Exemplary Cases 360 The Zeitgeist and the Individual 361 The Psychology of Rebellion 362 Crime, Creativity, and Paradigms 362 Further Reading 363 Relevant Websites 363 Critical Thinking 364 Glossary 364 Introduction 364 Aspects of Critical Thinking 364 Critical Thinking in Relation to Creativity 364 Critical Thinking in Education 365 Further Reading 366 Conclusions 366 Relevant Websites 366 Cross-Cultural Differences in Creativity 367 Glossary 367 Introduction 367 Making Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Creativity 367 The Social Context of Creativity 369 ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ Perspectives on Creativity 369 Perspectives of Indigenous Creativity Researchers 370 Cross-Cultural Assessment of Creativity 374 Why Some Cultures May Discourage Creativity 374 Conclusion 374 Further Reading 375 Relevant Websites 375 Cultural Diversity and Creativity 376 Glossary 376 Creativity and Cultural Diversity 376 Theoretical and Research Perspectives 377 Identification 380 Educational Implications 381 Conclusion 382 Relevant Websites 382 Further Reading 382 Marie Sklodowska Curie 1867–1934 384 Background 384 Personal Characteristics And Creativity 385 Environmental Influences 385 Creativity And Eminence 385 Further Reading 386 D 393 Leonardo da Vinci 1452–1519 387 Introduction 387 Historical Biography 387 Rivalry with Michaelangelo 388 How Leonardowas Unique 389 Paradox 0f his Personality 389 Left Brain–Right Brain Split 390 Nature of Integrated Paired Sense of Sight and Hearing 391 Further Reading 392 Conclusion 392 Dance and Creativity 393 Glossary 393 Dance and Embodiment 393 Dance Forms 394 Choreography 394 Dance and Healing Practices 395 Creativity and Neurobiology 395 Dance and Neurobiology 396 Dance, Creativity, and Research 397 Conclusion 399 Dance Artists Communicate: Writings and New Media Tools 399 Further Reading 399 Relevant Websites 400 The Dark Side of Creativity 401 Glossary 401 Introduction 401 Creativity and Competition 402 Defining Creativity: Novelty and Usefulness 402 Competition in a Broader Sense 402 Creativity and Business 402 A Dark Side to Creativity 403 The Many Faces of the Dark Side of Creativity 403 Characterizing the Dark Side of Creativity 403 The Four Ps of Creativity and the Dark Side 404 Dealing with the Dark Side 406 Further Reading 406 Concluding Remarks 406 Relevant Websites 407 Charles Robert Darwin 1809–1882 408 Childhood and Early Adolescence: Discovering the Wonders of Natural History 408 Late Adolescence: A Turning Point 409 The Voyage of the Beagle : First Theory 410 The Fruitful use of Analogy: Conceiving of Natural Selection 410 After Origin: Concluding a Creative Life 411 Further Reading 412 Definitions of Creativity 413 Glossary 413 The Changing Understanding of Creativity 413 Basic Theoretical Issues 414 Creativity as a Social Phenomenon 418 The Psychological Basis of Creativity 419 The Psychological Paradoxes of Creativity 420 The Dark Side of Creativity 421 Further Reading 423 Relevant Websites 423 Design 424 Glossary 424 What Is Design Creativity? 424 Locations of Design Creativity 425 Interactions in Design Creativity 428 Further Reading 430 Conclusions 430 Relevant Website 430 Developmental Trends in Creative Abilities and Potentials 431 Glossary 431 Development as Experience 431 Developmental Differences in Cognitive Processes 432 Strategies, Flexibility, and Assumptions 432 Potential Versus Actual Performance 433 Further Reading 433 Deviance 434 Glossary 434 Relevant Aspects of Creativity 434 Issues and Implications 434 Further Reading 437 Conclusion 437 Relevant Websites 437 Dialectical Thinking: Further Implications for Creative Thinking 438 Glossary 438 Meanings of Dialectic 438 Thesis–Antithesis–Synthesis Process of Dialectic Thinking 438 Formal Reasoning and Postformal Reasoning 439 Dialectical Thinking and Postformal Thinking 439 Postformal Reasoning and Problem Finding 440 Fifth Stage and Postformal Thinking 440 Dialectical Thinking and Creative Thinking 440 Further Reading 441 Relevant Websites 441 Isak Dinesen 1885–1962 442 Background 442 Further Reading 445 Discovery 446 Glossary 446 Definitions of Discovery 446 Who Discovers 447 How Discoveries Are Made 448 When Discoveries Are Made 450 What Is Discovered 450 Where Discoveries Are Made 451 Why Discoveries Are Made 451 Multiple or Simultaneous Discoveries 452 Discovery Outside of the Sciences 453 An Evolutionary Theory of Discovery 454 Further Reading 455 Distribution of Creativity 456 Glossary 456 Statistical Distributions 456 Motivation and Creative Performance 456 Causes of Positive Skew 456 Multiplicative Theories of Creativity 457 Diffusion of Creative Ideas 457 Learning, Expertise, and Creativity 458 Further Reading 458 Divergent Thinking 459 Glossary 459 Background 459 Tests and Example Questions 459 Divergent Thinking Indexes 460 Task Differences and Additional Tests 460 Psychometric Issues 461 Conclusions 462 Divergent Thinking and Idea Evaluation 462 Further Reading 462 Relevant Websites 462 Domains of Creativity 463 Glossary 463 Introduction 463 Domains and Domain Specificity 463 Evidence for Domains of Creativity 464 Common Misunderstandings About Domain Specificity: The Puzzle of Polymaths 465 Mixed and Hierarchical Models 466 Conclusions and Implications 466 Further Reading 467 Dreams and Creativity 468 Glossary 468 Creativity, Dreams, and Culture 469 Research on Creativity and Dreams 470 Possible Mechanisms 471 Further Reading 473 Relevant website 473 E 474 East vs. West 474 Glossary 474 The Western and Eastern Perspectives 474 Supernatural Creativity: Ancient Western and Eastern Views 474 Human Creativity: Modern Western and Eastern Conceptions 476 Contemporary Studies on the Conceptions of Creativity and Creative Performance 477 Basis for the East–West Differences: Culture and Cognition 479 Further Reading 480 Relevant Websites 480 Eccentricity 481 Glossary 481 Historical Evolution of the Term 481 The Victorian Era 481 Characteristics of Contemporary Eccentrics 482 Mental Disorder and Eccentricity 483 Creativity and Eccentricity 485 Further Reading 486 Economic Perspectives on Creativity 488 Glossary 488 Psychoeconomics of Creativity 488 The Economics of New Ideas 491 Further Reading 493 Conclusions 493 Education and Creativity 494 Glossary 494 The Complex Nature of Creativity Within Education 494 Approaches to Creativity in Education 494 Teachers and Creativity 496 Creative Problem Solving 496 Assessment 497 An Alternative Model 497 Conclusions 497 The Future of Creativity in Education 498 Further Reading 498 Relevant Websites 499 Albert Einstein 1879–1955 500 Early Years 500 Bern Period 501 University Years 501 Later Years 502 Further Reading 502 Eminence 503 Glossary 503 Significance 503 Measurement 504 Determinants 505 Evaluation 509 Further Reading 509 Relevant Website 510 Emotion/Affect 511 Glossary 511 Definitions of Emotion and Affect 511 Theories of Affect and Creativity 512 Play, Affect, and Creativity 515 Affect, Creativity, Adjustment, and Psychopathology 516 Neurological Processes, Affect, and Creativity 516 Further Reading 517 Conclusion 517 Enhancement of Creativity 518 Glossary 518 Can Creativity Be Enhanced? 518 What Exactly Can Be Enhanced? 518 Cognitive Components 519 Affective Components 519 Attitudinal Components 520 Interpersonal Components 520 Environmental Components 521 Drug Use 521 Programs Designed to Enhance Creativity 521 Increasing Creativity Test Scores 521 Conclusions 522 Further Reading 522 Entrepreneurship 523 Glossary 523 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs 523 Creativity and Innovation in Entrepreneurship 524 Creativity in Entrepreneurial Teams 525 The Role of Creativity Training in Entrepreneurship 526 Cultural Diversity in Entrepreneurial Teams 527 Conclusion 528 Further Reading 528 Relevant Websites 529 Everyday Creativity 530 Glossary 530 What Is Everyday Creativity? 530 Can Everyday Creativity Be Good for Us? 532 Does Creativity Involve Diverse States of Consciousness? 534 Seeking ‘Creative Normalcy’ 535 Conclusions 536 Further Reading 537 Relevant Website 537 Evolving Systems Approach 538 Glossary 538 Introduction 538 Facets 539 Organization 539 Purposes and Motives 540 Insight and Problem Solving 540 Conclusion 541 Skill 541 Collaboration 541 Further Reading 541 Relevant websites 541 Exercises 542 Glossary 542 Background 542 A Scientific Framework for Understanding Creativity Exercises 543 Exercises that Boost Individual Creativity 544 Exercises That Help Managers to Enhance Creativity in Others 546 Relevant Websites 549 Further Reading 549 Expertise 550 Glossary 550 Overview: Expertise and Expert Performance 550 The Traditional Account for Expertise, Expert Performance, and Exceptional Achievement: Innate Talent 551 The Alternative Account: Expertise as Acquired Knowledge and Skill 551 The Structure of Expert Performance 555 Expert Performance and Creative Achievements 558 Further Reading 558 Expressive Arts Therapy 559 Glossary 559 Definition 559 The Development of the Expressive Arts Therapy Approach 559 Expressive Arts Therapy Methods 561 Further Reading 563 Expressive Arts Therapy Applications 563 Relevant Websites 563 Conclusion 563 F 565 Families and Creativity 565 Glossary 565 Introduction 565 Family Characteristics 565 Stress 567 Conclusion 569 Complex Families 569 Further Reading 570 Film 571 Glossary 571 Introduction 571 Impact Criteria 572 Criteria Correlations 573 Criteria Predictors 573 Discussion 575 Further Reading 577 Relevant Websites 577 Ella Fitzgerald 1917–1996 578 Ella Fitzgerald: The Life 578 LPs and Songbooks 579 Other Awards 580 Grammy Awards 580 Marriages and Children 580 Summary 581 The Voice 581 The Direct Interpreter 581 The Rhythm 581 Ella Fitzgerald and Creativity 582 The Female Singer Situation 582 Racism 582 Further Reading 583 Ella Fitzgerald and Improvisation 583 Relevant Websites 583 Flow and Optimal Experience 584 Glossary 584 Characteristics of Flow 584 Introduction 584 Flow in Artistic Activities 585 Induction of Flow 587 Feelings of People in Flow Condition 587 Group Flow 588 Assessment of Flow 588 Some Flow Research Studies 589 Applications of Flow 589 Conclusions 590 Further Reading 590 Relevant Websites 590 Food, Creativity of Recipes, Pairings, Menus 591 Glossary 591 Food and Creativity 591 Creative Cuisine and Recipe 592 Creative Culinary Process 593 Factors Influencing Food Creativity 594 Conclusions 595 Creative Menu Design 595 Further Reading 595 The Four Ps of Creativity: Person, Product, Process, and Press 596 Glossary 596 Person and Personality 596 Introduction 596 The Four Ps 596 Press Factors 597 The Creative Process 597 Products 597 Creative Potential 598 Persuasion 598 Conclusions 599 Further Reading 599 Sigmund Freud 1856–1939 600 Early Adulthood 600 Background 600 The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis 601 Psychoanalysis: The Middle Years 602 Psychoanalysis: The Later Years 603 Further Reading 604 Friendship and Creativity 605 Glossary 605 Defining Friendship 605 Collaboration and Friendship 605 Domain Basis for Friendships 606 Role of Peers 606 A Look at One Domain: Music and Friendship 606 Benefits and Problems in Friendships of Creators 607 Further Reading 608 Future Research on Friendship and Creativity 608 G 610 Mahatma Gandhi 1869–1948 610 Introduction 610 Childhood and Youth 611 Education and the Intimate European Contacts 611 In the Wilds of Africa 611 Back Home to India 612 Gandhi’s Celibacy and Androgyny 613 Gandhi’s Creative Vision 613 The Creative Master 614 Concept of Truth 614 Gandhi in Action: Rise to the Mahatmaship 615 Gandhi and Tagore: Aristrocracy of the Sensitive 616 Four Gandhis 616 Relevant Websites 617 Further Reading 617 Gender Differences 618 Glossary 618 Introduction 618 Do Differences Exist? 619 Explaining the Differences 620 Conclusions 623 Further Reading 624 Genetics 625 Glossary 625 An Introduction into Behavioral Genetics 625 Studies from Quantitative Genetics 626 Short Introduction into Molecular Genetics 626 Association Studies from Molecular Genetics 627 Problems and Perspectives 629 Further Reading 630 Genius and Greatness 631 Glossary 631 Introduction 631 Genius 631 Greatness 633 Convergence 634 Divergence 635 Conclusion 636 Further Reading 636 Relevant Websites 637 Giftedness and Creativity 638 Glossary 638 Traditional and Untraditional Views 638 Cultural Views 639 Philosophical Orientations 640 Implications 640 Further Reading 641 Relevant Websites 641 Group Creativity 642 Glossary 642 Creativity 642 Group Processes 642 Group Idea Generation 643 Leadership 644 Cooperation and Competition 645 Team Innovation 645 Further Reading 646 Phases of Group Creativity 646 Relevant Website 647 H 648 Joseph Haydn 1732–1809 648 Creativity and Politics 649 Creativity and Diplomacy 650 Creativity and Musical Structure 651 Creativity and Motivation 651 Creativity and Spirituality 652 Haydn the Consummate Creator 653 Further Reading 654 Relevant Website 654 Handwriting and Creativity 655 Glossary 655 Graphology, Personality, and Culture 655 Graphology, the Study of Handwriting 656 Creativity: Aspirations and Organization 656 Creativity, Thought, and the Brain 656 Dysgraphia and the Split Brain 657 Alexithymia, Creativity, and the Split Brain 658 From Graphology to Graphonomics 660 Further Reading 661 Relevant Websites 661 Katharine Hepburn 1907–2003 662 Introduction 662 Katharine’s Early Life 662 Background 662 Katharine’s Atypical Adolescent Years 663 Kate’s Earliest Work in Acting 663 The Bryn Mawr Years 663 Kate’s Relationships: The Intermingling of Early Private and Public Life 664 Lows and Highs of Kate’s Career During the 1930s 664 Kate’s Mastering Difficulties at Home and Reinventing Her Image 665 Kate’s Rise to Fame in the 1940s and 1950s 665 Kate’s Responsiveness to a Flower and to a Question About Life’s Purpose 666 Kate’s Fruitful Golden Years 666 Kate’s Latest Distinctions 666 The Dying of Some Lights and the Rising of Others in Kate’s Latter Years 666 Katharine Hepburn and Creativity 666 Further Reading 667 The Legacy of Katharine Hepburn 667 Relevant Websites 667 Heuristics: Strategies in Creative Problem Solving 668 Glossary 668 Introduction 668 Knowledge, Processes, and Strategies 668 Further Reading 673 Conclusions 673 Historical Conceptions of Creativity 67 The first edition of the successful Encyclopedia of Creativity served to establish the study of creativity is a field in itself. Now completely updated and revised in its second edition, coverage encompasses the definition of creativity, the development and expression of creativity across the lifespan, the environmental conditions that encourage or discourage creativity, creativity within specific disciplines like music, dance, film, art, literature, etc., the relationship of creativity and mental health, intelligence, and learning styles, and the process of being creative. This reference also appeals to a lay audience with articles specifically on the application of creativity to business settings. Available online via ScienceDirect and in limited print release.

• Named a 2012 Outstanding Academic Title by the American Library Association's Choice publication
• Serves as a compendium of reviews of a number of domain-specific areas, such as acting, dance, expressive arts, film, food, music, religion, science, sports, theater, and writing.
• Creativity and education are examined in articles about thought processes, such as developmental trends in creative abilities and potentials, the enhancement of creativity, intelligence, knowledge, play, prodigies, programs and courses, talent and teaching creativity.
• Cognitive aspects of creativity can be investigated in articles about altered and transitional states, analogies, attention, cognitive style, divergent thinking, flow and optimal experience, metacognition, metaphors, problem-finding, problem-solving, and remote associates.
• Covers business and organizational creativity in articles about advertising with art, creative visuals, business/management, creativity coaching, creativity exercises, entrepreneurship, group dynamics, innovation, leadership, organizational culture, organizational development, teams, and training, among others.
• Explicitly examines the complex interrelationship between society and creativity in articles about awards, conformity and conventionality, the creative sector and class of society, cultural diversity, the dark side of creativity, East vs. West, networking, social psychology, war, zeitgeist, and others.
• Personal and interpersonal creativity is discussed in articles relating to collaboration, family, life stages, mentors, networking, personal creativity and self-actualization.
• Focuses on scientific information about creativity, there are also articles that discuss brain and neuropsychology, concepts of creativity, definitions of creativity, expertise, longitudinal studies, researching art, artists and art audiences, research methods, phenomenology research and qualitative research.
• Online version contains an additional 26 biographies of famously creative people