دانشنامه شیمی زیستی، مجموعه چهار جلدی، جلد ۱-۴

Written for a broad, cross-disciplinary audience, the Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry addresses the fundamental discipline of biological chemistry underlying virtually all of the life sciences. This compilation of more than 500 different entries encompasses all aspects of biochemistry, as well as the extensions of this subject into the related fields of molecular biology, cell biology, genetics and biophysics. This comprehensive encyclopedia covers all areas of biological chemistry written by more than 500 selected international experts. Articles are generously illustrated including more than 800 images in four-color. Each entry contains a clear, concise review of the topic along with illustrations, a glossary of technical terms and a section for additional reading. Each entry further contains general background and term definitions as well as a comprehensive review of the current research in the field. Students, science journalists and scientists seeking a concise introduction to specific topics will appreciate the clear, tabular format of each entry. Also available online via ScienceDirect – featuring extensive browsing, searching, and internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information, pricing options and availability visit www.info.sciencedirect.com. • Four-volume set with topics arranged from A to Z for easy reference • Seven subject areas covering all areas of biological chemistry • Over 500 full-color articles of 4-9 pages each • Over 1300 illustrations throughout with 800 in 4-color and over 200 tables • Glossary of specialized terms and 'Further Reading' section provided for every article • Includes entries on the latest research techniques • Appropriate for students, researchers, and professionals Audience: Upper level college students, postdocs, and professionals in biochemistry, biophysics, cell biology, molecular biology, neuroscience, pharmacology, and oncology, academic and industrial libraries, and pharmaceutical companies. Cover Page......Page 895 Editors-in-Chief......Page 829 Associate Editors......Page 831 Preface......Page 834 Notes on the Subject Index......Page 835 Volume 1......Page 836 Volume 2......Page 844 Volume 3......Page 852 Volume 4......Page 860 Lipids, Carbohydrates, Membranes and Membrane Proteins......Page 865 Metabolism, Vitamins and Hormones......Page 867 Cell Architecture and Function......Page 869 Protein/Enzyme Structure Function and Degradation......Page 872 Bioenergetics......Page 875 Molecular Biology......Page 881 Signaling......Page 887 Techniques and Methodology......Page 894 Volume 1 (A-D)......Page 1 Volume 3 (N-R)......Page 0 CGRP Receptor-Selective Drugs and their Pharmacological Properties......Page 210 Cellular Signaling and RCP......Page 211 The Pathophysiology of CGRP and Adrenomedullin Receptors......Page 213 Further Reading......Page 214 Cover Page......Page 1738 Editors-in-Chief......Page 1672 Associate Editors......Page 1674 Preface......Page 1677 Volume 1......Page 1679 Volume 2......Page 1687 Volume 3......Page 1695 Volume 4......Page 1703 Lipids, Carbohydrates, Membranes and Membrane Proteins......Page 1708 Metabolism, Vitamins and Hormones......Page 1710 Cell Architecture and Function......Page 1712 Protein/Enzyme Structure Function and Degradation......Page 1715 Bioenergetics......Page 1718 Molecular Biology......Page 1724 Signaling......Page 1730 Techniques and Methodology......Page 1737 Volume 2 (E-M)......Page 896 Cover Page......Page 2586 Editors-in-Chief......Page 2520 Associate Editors......Page 2522 Preface......Page 2525 Volume 1......Page 2527 Volume 2......Page 2535 Volume 3......Page 2543 Volume 4......Page 2551 Lipids, Carbohydrates, Membranes and Membrane Proteins......Page 2556 Metabolism, Vitamins and Hormones......Page 2558 Cell Architecture and Function......Page 2560 Protein/Enzyme Structure Function and Degradation......Page 2563 Bioenergetics......Page 2566 Molecular Biology......Page 2572 Signaling......Page 2578 Techniques and Methodology......Page 2585 Atrial Natriuretic Peptide......Page 1739 Brain Natriuretic Peptide......Page 1740 Natriuretic Peptide Receptors......Page 1741 Guanylyl Cyclase-Linked Natriuretic Peptide Receptors......Page 1742 Further Reading......Page 1743 The N-End Rule Pathway......Page 1744 Further Reading......Page 1747 Using Synthetic Carbohydrate Derivatives......Page 1749 Use of Glycosyl Transferases......Page 1750 Conjugation of Glycopeptides......Page 1751 Further Reading......Page 1752 Spatial Calcium Signaling in Synapse-to-Nucleus Communication......Page 1754 NFAT and DREAM......Page 1755 Nuclear Calcium Signals......Page 1756 See Also the Following Articles......Page 1757 Further Reading......Page 1758 The Neurofilament Triplet Proteins......Page 1759 Peripherin......Page 1762 Further Reading......Page 1763 The NPY Y1 Receptor......Page 1764 The NPY Y2 Receptor......Page 1765 The NPY Y4 Receptor......Page 1766 The NPY Y5 Receptor......Page 1767 Further Reading......Page 1768 NTS1......Page 1770 NTS3......Page 1771 Neurotensin Receptor Implication in Brain Functions......Page 1772 Glossary......Page 1773 Further Reading......Page 1774 Reuptake......Page 1775 Structure and Function......Page 1776 Further Reading......Page 1777 Neurotrophin Activation of Trk Receptors......Page 1779 Neurotrophin Activation of the p75NTR Receptor......Page 1781 Interaction Between p75NTR and the Nogo Receptor......Page 1782 Further Reading......Page 1783 Structure-Function of the Substrate-Binding Domains......Page 1784 Mechanism of Hydride Transfer......Page 1786 The Proton Channel......Page 1788 Physiological Role......Page 1789 Further Reading......Page 1790 The Extracellular Domain......Page 1791 The Pore......Page 1792 Central Nervous System......Page 1793 Epilepsy......Page 1794 Further Reading......Page 1795 Nitric Oxide Synthase......Page 1796 Chemistry of NO......Page 1797 Non-cGMP NO-Signaling Pathways......Page 1798 Further Reading......Page 1799 Classification and Properties of Processing Alpha-Mannosidases......Page 1800 Class-I Golgi Alpha1,2-Mannosidases......Page 1801 Class II Golgi Alpha-Mannosidases......Page 1802 Further Reading......Page 1803 DNA-PKcs......Page 1804 Roles of NHEJ......Page 1805 Repair of Radiation Induced DSBs......Page 1806 Role in Maintaining Genomic Stability......Page 1807 Further Reading......Page 1808 Types of Transposable Elements......Page 1809 DDE Enzymes......Page 1811 Non-DDE Transposases......Page 1813 Target Choice......Page 1814 Regulation......Page 1815 Further Reading......Page 1816 Transposons......Page 1818 ‘‘Cut-and-Paste’’ versus ‘‘Copy-and-Paste’’ Transposition......Page 1819 Retrotransposons......Page 1820 Site-Specific Non-LTR Retrotransposons......Page 1822 Glossary......Page 1823 Further Reading......Page 1824 PML Nuclear Bodies, ND10......Page 1825 Cajal (Coiled) Bodies and Gems......Page 1827 The Compartmentalized Nucleus......Page 1828 Further Reading......Page 1829 Lamin Genes......Page 1830 Nuclear Size......Page 1831 Proteolysis......Page 1832 Further Reading......Page 1833 Regulation of NFB Activity......Page 1834 NFAlphaB and Disease......Page 1836 Further Reading......Page 1837 Origin of Nuclear Gene Products with Functions in Mitochondria......Page 1838 Nonessential PET Genes......Page 1839 Essential PET Genes......Page 1840 Glossary......Page 1841 Further Reading......Page 1842 Establishing a Zone......Page 1843 Changes in Gene Expression Correlate with Shifting Zones......Page 1844 Glossary......Page 1845 Further Reading......Page 1846 Targeting Signals......Page 1847 Transport Receptors......Page 1848 Transport Mechanisms: RNA Trafficking......Page 1849 mRNA Export......Page 1850 Further Reading......Page 1851 DNA Supercoiling......Page 1853 The Domain Structure of the Nucleoid......Page 1854 Nucleoid-Associated Proteins......Page 1855 Further Reading......Page 1856 Amplified Nucleoli and Missing Nucleoli......Page 1857 The Plurifunctional Nucleolus......Page 1858 Further Reading......Page 1860 Types of Damage Repaired by NER......Page 1861 Excision of the Damaged Strand......Page 1862 Replication of Damaged DNA......Page 1863 Clinical Consequences of NER Deficiencies - Cancer......Page 1864 Mouse Models of NER Deficiencies......Page 1865 Glossary......Page 1866 Further Reading......Page 1867 Mechanism of Nucleotide Excision Repair......Page 1868 Damage Recognition and Transcription-Coupled Repair......Page 1869 Glossary......Page 1870 Further Reading......Page 1871 Genetics and Evolutionary Conservation of uvr Genes......Page 1872 Properties of UvrA, UvrB, and UvrC Proteins......Page 1874 Molecular Mechanism of Damage Recognition......Page 1876 Dual Incision......Page 1877 UvrD......Page 1878 Transcription-Coupled Repair......Page 1879 Further Reading......Page 1880 Distribution in Nature......Page 1881 Detection of NER in vivo and in vitro......Page 1882 Kinetics of NER......Page 1883 Further Reading......Page 1884 Olfactory Receptors Segregate in Several Highly Divergent Groups......Page 1886 Monogenic and Monoallelic Expression of Olfactory Receptor Genes......Page 1887 Olfactory Receptor Gene Expression is Regulated by Proximal and Distal Control Regions......Page 1888 Signal Transduction of Olfactory Receptors......Page 1889 Further Reading......Page 1891 Obtaining and Preparing Glycans for Mass Spectrometry......Page 1892 Instrumentation for Glycoconjugate Mass Spectrometry......Page 1893 Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS) and Sequential Mass Spectrometry (MSn)......Page 1894 Further Reading......Page 1897 Free Oligosaccharide Transport System from the Endoplasmic Reticulum to the Cytosol......Page 1898 Free Oligosaccharides Formed in the Cytosol: Its Connection with Endoplasmic-Reticulum-Associated Degradation......Page 1899 Concluding Remarks......Page 1900 Further Reading......Page 1901 Mitochondrial Biochemistry......Page 1902 Further Reading......Page 1903 Discovery of Multiple Opioid Receptors......Page 1904 Distribution and Pharmacology of Multiple Opioid Receptors......Page 1905 Opioid Ligands Selectivity for the Multiple Opioid Receptors......Page 1906 Summary and Future Direction......Page 1907 Further Reading......Page 1908 Chemistry of the Cycle......Page 1909 Physiological Aspects of the Cycle......Page 1910 Short-Term Regulation......Page 1911 Extra-Hepatic Expression of Ornithine Cycle Enzymes......Page 1912 Inborn Errors of the Ornithine Cycle......Page 1913 Further Reading......Page 1914 Dioxygenases......Page 1915 Molecular Oxygen as a Substrate......Page 1916 Biological Function of Oxygenases......Page 1917 Glossary......Page 1918 Further Reading......Page 1919 Release of ATP onto P2X Receptors......Page 1920 Activation of P2X Receptor Ion Channels (P2X1 through P2X6)......Page 1921 P2X Receptors and Sympathetic Neurotransmission (P2X1 and P2X2 Receptors)......Page 1922 P2X Receptors and Sensory Pathways (P2X3 and P2X2/3)......Page 1923 Further Reading......Page 1924 Extracellular Nucleotides as Signaling Molecules......Page 1925 Functional Classification of the P2Y Receptors......Page 1926 Important Physiological or Pathological Functions of P2Y Receptor Subtypes......Page 1927 Further Reading......Page 1928 Growth Arrest and Apoptosis......Page 1929 p53 Regulation......Page 1930 Protein-Protein Interactions......Page 1931 Further Reading......Page 1932 Roles of Nutrients and mTOR in Regulating p70 S6 Kinase......Page 1933 Mechanisms Involved in the Activation of p70 S6 Kinase......Page 1934 mTOR Signaling is Inhibited by the Immunosuppressant Drug, Rapamycin......Page 1935 mTOR Signaling Is Regulated by Hormones and Nutrients......Page 1936 Further Reading......Page 1937 PTH......Page 1938 Functional Domains of PTH(1-34) and PTHrP(1-34)......Page 1940 The Ligand Interaction Mechanism in the PPR......Page 1941 Blomstrand’s Chondrodysplasia......Page 1943 Further Reading......Page 1944 Applications......Page 1945 Further Reading......Page 1947 Shunt or Cycle......Page 1948 Methods......Page 1949 Further Reading......Page 1952 Background......Page 1953 Early Discoveries......Page 1954 Post Second World War Discoveries of Reactions in the Nonoxidative Segment of the Pentose Pathway......Page 1956 Finding a Reaction Sequence for the Nonoxidative Pentose Pathway......Page 1957 The Search for a New Reaction Scheme for the Pentose Pathway......Page 1958 Exposing the Problem of Assigning a Reaction Scheme to the Nonoxidative PP......Page 1960 Glossary......Page 1961 Further Reading......Page 1962 Peptidylglycine Alpha-Hydroxylating Monooxygenase - PHM......Page 1963 Evolutionary Relationships......Page 1965 Impaired Peptide Amidation......Page 1966 Further Reading......Page 1967 Respiratory Electron Transport Systems......Page 1968 Bacterial Periplasmic Respiratory Electron Transport Systems that are Dependent on the Cytochrome bc1 Complex......Page 1969 Periplasmic Electron Transport Systems that do not Depend on the Cytochrome bc1 Complex......Page 1970 Formate Dehydrogenase N......Page 1971 Nitrate Reductase A......Page 1972 Multi-Heme c-Type Cytochromes......Page 1973 Synthesis of Periplasmic Electron Transport Systems......Page 1974 Further Reading......Page 1975 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors......Page 1976 PPAR (NR1C1)......Page 1977 PPAR (NR1C3)......Page 1980 PPAR (NR1C2)......Page 1981 Further Reading......Page 1982 Functions of Peroxisomes......Page 1983 Peroxisomal Matrix Protein Import......Page 1984 Glossary......Page 1986 Further Reading......Page 1987 Phagemid Vectors......Page 1988 Construction of Libraries......Page 1989 Design of Diversity Libraries......Page 1990 Phage-Binding Analysis......Page 1991 Further Reading......Page 1992 Pheromone Receptors Stimulate a Signal Transduction Pathway......Page 1993 Pheromone Receptor Synthesis Requires the Secretory Pathway......Page 1995 Pheromone Receptors Bind Ligand via Contacts with the Extracellular Ends of the Transmembrane Segments......Page 1996 Pheromone Receptors Promote G-Protein Activation via the Third Intracellular Loop......Page 1997 Further Reading......Page 1998 The PHO Genes and their Regulation......Page 1999 Further Reading......Page 2002 Synthesis......Page 2003 Hydrolysis......Page 2004 Cellular Function......Page 2005 PtdIns-3,4,5-P3-Binding Proteins......Page 2006 Cellular Function......Page 2007 Further Reading......Page 2008 Dephosphorylation of PtdIns(3)P......Page 2009 Protein Domains that Bind to PtdIns(3)P......Page 2010 PtdIns(3)P in Phagocytosis and Bacterial Invasion......Page 2011 Further Reading......Page 2012 Enzymology of PFK-2......Page 2014 Regulation and Physiological Roles of Specific Isoforms in Specific Tissues......Page 2015 Glossary......Page 2016 Further Reading......Page 2017 Activation and Regulation of PI 3-Kinases......Page 2018 Class I PI 3-Kinases......Page 2019 Signaling Downstream of PI 3-Kinases......Page 2021 Inflammatory Disease......Page 2022 Further Reading......Page 2023 Cellular Functions......Page 2024 Type II PIP Kinases......Page 2025 Type III PIP Kinases......Page 2026 Phosphoinositide 5-Phosphatases......Page 2027 Further Reading......Page 2028 Protein Kinase B/Akt......Page 2029 PDK1 and the Regulation of the AGC Kinases......Page 2030 Regulators of Cellular Growth - mTOR and S6K1......Page 2031 Further Reading......Page 2032 PLA2 Enzymes Using a Catalytic Histidine (sPLA2s)......Page 2034 PLA2 Enzymes Utilizing a Catalytic Serine......Page 2035 Further Reading......Page 2036 Structure of PLC......Page 2038 PLC-Beta......Page 2039 PLC-Gamma......Page 2040 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2041 Further Reading......Page 2042 PLD Structure......Page 2043 Regulation of Mammalian Phospholipase D......Page 2044 Biophysical role......Page 2047 Mammals......Page 2048 Further Reading......Page 2049 Diacylglycerophospholipids......Page 2051 Biosynthesis of Ether Glycerophospholipids......Page 2054 Glossary......Page 2056 Further Reading......Page 2057 CDP-DAG Pathway......Page 2058 CDP-Choline and CDP-Ethanolamine (Kennedy) Pathways......Page 2059 Regulation of Phospholipid Synthesis......Page 2060 Biochemical Regulation......Page 2061 Further Reading......Page 2062 Phototransduction......Page 2063 Pineal Photoreceptors......Page 2065 Further Reading......Page 2066 Energy Capture......Page 2067 Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis......Page 2068 Benson-Calvin Cycle......Page 2069 C4 Photosynthesis......Page 2070 Further Reading......Page 2071 Carboxylation Phase......Page 2073 Regeneration Phase......Page 2074 Regulation of the Calvin Cycle......Page 2075 Direct Targeting of Calvin Cycle......Page 2076 Glossary......Page 2077 Further Reading......Page 2078 Function of PS I......Page 2079 The Proteins......Page 2080 The Electron Transport Chain......Page 2081 The Antenna System......Page 2082 Further Reading......Page 2084 Photosystem I: The Best-Studied Type I Reaction Center......Page 2085 Geometry and Oxidation States......Page 2086 FX, the Interpolypeptide [4Fe-4S] Cluster Bound by PsaA and PsaB......Page 2088 FA and FB, the [4Fe-4S] Clusters Bound by PsaC......Page 2089 Resolution of the Sequence of Electron Transfer: FX>FA>FB......Page 2090 Further Reading......Page 2092 Structure and Function of LHCII......Page 2094 The Need for Control of the Light Reactions of Photosynthesis......Page 2095 Energy-Dependent Quenching, qE......Page 2096 The Nature of the Quenched State of LHCII......Page 2097 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2098 Further Reading......Page 2099 Cooperation Between Chloroplast and Nucleus......Page 2100 PSII Photoinactivation and the D1 Protein Damage......Page 2101 PSII Photoinhibition Repair Cycle......Page 2102 Further Reading......Page 2103 QA......Page 2104 PsbC-CP43......Page 2105 PsbE and PsbF......Page 2106 PsbH......Page 2107 PsbO......Page 2108 PsbV......Page 2109 Further Reading......Page 2110 The Photosystem II Complex......Page 2112 The Water Splitting Enzyme......Page 2113 The Redox Potential of the Different S States......Page 2114 The Mechanism of Water Oxidation......Page 2115 Glossary......Page 2116 Further Reading......Page 2117 Tomato and Tobacco Hydroxyproline-Rich Glycosylated Defense Signals......Page 2118 CLAVATA3......Page 2119 Concluding Remarks......Page 2120 Further Reading......Page 2121 Plasma-Membrane Calcium Pump Structure......Page 2122 Mechanistic Aspects......Page 2123 Regulation......Page 2124 Glossary......Page 2125 Further Reading......Page 2126 The Structure of Cyt f......Page 2127 The Structure of PSI......Page 2128 Involvement of The PsaF Subunit in Electrostatic Interaction Between PC and PSI in Higher Plants and Green Algae......Page 2129 Further Reading......Page 2130 Platelet-Activating Factor......Page 2131 PAF Receptor Structure......Page 2132 PAF Receptor Signal Transduction......Page 2134 Further Reading......Page 2135 PDGF Receptors......Page 2136 Proteins Associated with the PDGF Receptors and PDGF-Driven Signaling Pathways......Page 2137 Proliferation......Page 2138 Chemotaxis......Page 2140 Dephosphorylation by PTPs......Page 2141 Further Reading......Page 2142 Polysialic Acid inMolecular Medicine......Page 2144 Embryonic and Adult Forms of N-CAM......Page 2145 Expression and Function of Polysialic Acid on Extraneural Cells......Page 2146 Prokaryotic-Derived Reagentsfor the Detection and Analysisof PolySia......Page 2147 Evidence for the Role of Polysialic Acid in Cancer Metastasis......Page 2148 Rationale for Chemotherapeutic Inhibition of PolySia Biosynthesis......Page 2149 Further Reading......Page 2150 -Aminolevulinic Acid to Uroporphyrinogen III......Page 2152 Heme and Chlorophyll Biosynthesis......Page 2153 Regulation......Page 2154 Herbicides......Page 2155 Further Reading......Page 2156 Enzymatic Processing of tRNA Precursors......Page 2157 Primary Processing......Page 2158 Generation of Mature rRNAs......Page 2159 Processing Differences among Various Bacterial Species......Page 2160 Further Reading......Page 2161 Removal of Precursor-Specific Sequences......Page 2162 Changes in Nucleotide Sequence of the Mature Domain......Page 2163 Removal of the Spacer Regions......Page 2164 Further Reading......Page 2168 Prion Domains and Functional Domains......Page 2169 Yeast, Fungal Prions [PSI+], [URE3], and [Het-s] are Self-Propagating Amyloidoses......Page 2170 Prion Generation......Page 2171 Chaperones and Prion Propagation......Page 2172 Further Reading......Page 2173 Replication Cycle......Page 2174 Physiopathology of Prion Diseases......Page 2175 Glossary......Page 2176 Further Reading......Page 2177 Processivity Clamp Loaders......Page 2178 E. Coli Clamp Loader, Gama-Complex......Page 2179 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2182 Further Reading......Page 2183 Propionyl CoA Carboxylase......Page 2184 Propionic Acidemia/Aciduria (PA)......Page 2185 Further Reading......Page 2187 PGHS Catalysis and Inhibition......Page 2189 PGHS-1 and PGHS-2 Gene Expression......Page 2190 5-Lipoxygenase Activating Protein (FLAP)......Page 2191 Leukotriene Metabolism......Page 2192 Further Reading......Page 2193 The Role of Thrombin......Page 2194 Similarity to Trypsin......Page 2196 Further Reading......Page 2199 Subunit Composition......Page 2201 Structure......Page 2202 The 19S Regulator and its Subcomplexes......Page 2203 Glossary......Page 2204 Further Reading......Page 2205 The 26S Proteasome......Page 2206 Physiological Importance......Page 2207 REGs or PA28s......Page 2208 PA200......Page 2209 Further Reading......Page 2210 Introduction......Page 2211 Ras-Related and Heterotrimeric G Protein......Page 2212 Protein Phosphatase 2A......Page 2213 Further Reading......Page 2214 Primary Data Acquisition - The PDB......Page 2215 Data Dissemination......Page 2216 Secondary Sources......Page 2217 Data Reduction......Page 2218 The Future......Page 2219 Further Reading......Page 2220 Endocytic-Lysosomal Pathway......Page 2221 Lysosomes......Page 2222 Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway......Page 2223 Ubiquitin Conjugation......Page 2224 Protein Degradation......Page 2225 Proteolysis in Mitochondria......Page 2227 Selection of Substrates......Page 2228 Further Reading......Page 2229 Levinthal’s Paradox......Page 2230 Folding Intermediates......Page 2231 More Complex Folding Reactions......Page 2232 Disulfide-Coupled Folding......Page 2233 Assembly of Oligomeric Proteins......Page 2234 Protein Folding Pathologies......Page 2235 Further Reading......Page 2236 Mechanism of Action of Glycosylation Inhibitors......Page 2237 Mechanism of Action and Effect of Glycoprotein Processing Inhibitors......Page 2238 Further Reading......Page 2240 The Protein Carbohydrate Linkage......Page 2241 O-Linked Glycosylation......Page 2242 Protective......Page 2244 Glossary......Page 2245 Further Reading......Page 2246 Transport to and Across the Outer Membrane......Page 2247 The TOM Translocase......Page 2248 The TIM23 Complex......Page 2249 Protein Folding and Assembly......Page 2250 Further Reading......Page 2251 The PI3K/PKB Signaling Pathway......Page 2253 Apoptosis and Cell Survival......Page 2255 Regulation of proliferation......Page 2257 Further Reading......Page 2258 Protein Kinase C Phosphorylation......Page 2260 Protein Kinase C Translocation......Page 2261 Protein Kinase C Signaling......Page 2262 Further Reading......Page 2263 Function of N-Myristoylation......Page 2264 Reaction Mechanism......Page 2265 Therapeutics......Page 2266 Further Reading......Page 2267 Palmitoyltransferases......Page 2269 Palmitoylation and Protein Function......Page 2270 Further Reading......Page 2271 Intracellular PTPs......Page 2273 Involvement of PTPs in Mammalian Biology and Disease......Page 2274 PTPs as Drug Targets......Page 2277 Further Reading......Page 2278 Agonist Peptides......Page 2280 Northern Blot Analysis......Page 2281 In SituHybridization to Detect Receptor mRNA......Page 2282 Tissue Bioassays (Contraction or Relaxation)......Page 2283 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2284 Further Reading......Page 2285 Glycosaminoglycans......Page 2286 Secreted And Matrix Proteoglycans......Page 2288 Membrane-Bound Proteoglycans......Page 2290 Glossary......Page 2291 Further Reading......Page 2292 Distribution of Pterins in Nature......Page 2293 The Aromatic Amino Acid Hydroxylases (AAHs)......Page 2294 Molybdopterin-Containing Enzymes......Page 2295 Tetrahydrobiopterin and Human Disease......Page 2296 Further Reading......Page 2297 General Structure of Group IB P-Type ATPases......Page 2298 Physiological Roles......Page 2299 Regulation......Page 2300 Further Reading......Page 2301 The Alpha-Subunit of Gastric H+, K+-ATPase......Page 2302 The Beta-Subunit of Gastric H+, K+-ATPase......Page 2303 Kinetics and Conformational Changes of the Gastric H+, K+-ATPase......Page 2304 Functional Residues of the H+, K+-ATPase......Page 2305 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2306 Further Reading......Page 2307 E1- and E2-Conformations of the Na+/K+ Pump......Page 2308 Na+/K+ Pumps in Epithelial Cells of Kidney, Intestine, Lung, and Glands......Page 2310 Na+/K+ Pump Isoform Expression and Regulation in Muscle and Central Nervous System......Page 2311 Further Reading......Page 2312 Structure......Page 2314 Reaction Mechanism......Page 2315 Biogenesis......Page 2316 Regulation......Page 2317 Further Reading......Page 2318 Reaction Center......Page 2319 Properties of Reaction Center Cofactors......Page 2320 Ubiquinol-Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase (Cytochrome bc1 Complex)......Page 2321 Further Reading......Page 2322 Subunit Composition and Molecular Characterization......Page 2323 Kinetics......Page 2326 Mutants......Page 2327 Quinone Reduction and Protonation......Page 2329 Cytochrome c2 Oxidation......Page 2330 Further Reading......Page 2331 The Variety of PLP-Dependent Reactions......Page 2332 Chemical Mechanisms......Page 2334 Further Reading......Page 2335 Regulation......Page 2337 Deficiency and Interference......Page 2338 Formation of Cytidine and Thymidine Nucleotides......Page 2339 Regulation......Page 2340 Deficiency and Interference......Page 2341 Further Reading......Page 2342 Control of Gluconeogenesis......Page 2343 Control by Substrate Supply......Page 2345 Breakdown of Amino Acids in Muscle and the ‘‘Glucose-Alanine Cycle’’......Page 2346 Further Reading......Page 2347 Components and Structure of PDH......Page 2348 Role of PDH in Metabolism......Page 2349 Regulation of Activity by Phosphorylation......Page 2350 Extrinsic Regulation of PDH......Page 2351 Further Reading......Page 2352 Phosphorylation/Dephosporylation......Page 2353 Crystallographic Studies......Page 2354 Regulation of ChREBP in Response to Glucose and cAMP......Page 2355 Further Reading......Page 2356 Chemistry and Distribution......Page 2357 Functions of Coenzyme Q......Page 2359 Biological Naphthoquinones: Menaquinone and Vitamin K......Page 2362 Further Reading......Page 2363 Primary Structure and Evolution......Page 2364 Cellular Localization......Page 2365 Functional Cycle......Page 2366 Rabs and Diseases......Page 2367 Further Reading......Page 2369 The Cellular Gradient of RanGTP......Page 2370 Nuclear Transport......Page 2371 Regulation of Spindle and Nuclear Envelope Assembly at Mitosis......Page 2373 Further Reading......Page 2374 The GDP/GTP Cycle and Ras Mutations......Page 2375 H-, K-, and N-Ras......Page 2376 Rap1 and 2......Page 2377 Other Ras Family Members......Page 2378 Further Reading......Page 2379 RecA Strand Transfer......Page 2380 Mismatch Repair Mediates Heteroduplex Formation......Page 2381 Glossary......Page 2382 Further Reading......Page 2383 Structure......Page 2384 Three-Strand Exchange Reaction......Page 2385 Mediator Proteins......Page 2386 Further Reading......Page 2387 RDR Pathways in Bacteriophage......Page 2389 Demonstration of RDR in Escherichia coli and Yeast......Page 2390 RDR as a Backup Mechanism to Complete DNA Replication......Page 2391 Replication Fork Failure and Direct Restart Pathways......Page 2392 Further Reading......Page 2394 Bloom Syndrome......Page 2395 Functional Clues Provided by In vitro Studies......Page 2396 Potential Functions for recQ Helicases in Replication-Associated DNA Repair......Page 2397 Glossary......Page 2398 Further Reading......Page 2399 Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Proteins (SREBPs)......Page 2400 ATF6 and RseA......Page 2402 Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP)......Page 2403 Rip Mediated by Rhomboid......Page 2404 Further Reading......Page 2405 Complex I (NADH-Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase)......Page 2406 Complex IV (Ferrocytochrome c - Oxygen Oxidoreductase or Cytochrome c Oxidase)......Page 2407 Other Ubiquinol Oxidizing Enzymes (The Alternative Oxidase)......Page 2408 Mechanism of ATP Synthesis......Page 2409 Further Reading......Page 2410 Assembly Factors......Page 2411 The Hydrogenase Module......Page 2412 Proton Pumping......Page 2413 Poisoning of Complex I......Page 2414 Further Reading......Page 2415 Structural Classification......Page 2416 Overall Description of the Structure......Page 2417 The Integral Membrane Subunit(s) C (and D) and the Sites of Quinol Oxidation/Quinone Reduction......Page 2419 Electron Transfer......Page 2420 Glossary......Page 2421 Further Reading......Page 2422 Background......Page 2423 Prosthetic Groups......Page 2424 Protein Structure......Page 2425 Proton Transfer Pathways......Page 2426 The Catalytic Cycle and Proton Pumping......Page 2427 Further Reading......Page 2429 Electron Transport Chains......Page 2430 Genetic Regulation of Respiration and Photosynthesis in Facultative Phototrophs......Page 2431 Electron Transport Pathways in Oxygenic Phototrophs......Page 2432 Further Reading......Page 2434 The RB Tumor Suppressor......Page 2435 The Rb Pathway......Page 2436 Glossary......Page 2437 Further Reading......Page 2438 Retinoic Acid-Binding Domain......Page 2439 Retinoic Acid Receptor Function......Page 2440 Glossary......Page 2441 Further Reading......Page 2442 Retrovirus Genome......Page 2443 Activities Associated with the Reverse Transcriptase......Page 2444 Fidelity......Page 2445 The Role of RT in Reverse Transcription......Page 2446 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2447 Further Reading......Page 2448 GTPase-Activating Proteins......Page 2449 Rho Effectors......Page 2450 Rac Effectors......Page 2451 Cell Migration......Page 2452 Further Reading......Page 2453 Assembly of Bacterial Ribosomes in vitro......Page 2454 Synthesis, Modification, and Processing of rRNA......Page 2455 Ribosome Assembly......Page 2457 See Also the Following Articles......Page 2458 Further Reading......Page 2459 Fundamental Activities of the Ribosome......Page 2460 Distinguishing Structural Features of the Ribosome......Page 2461 Struggling with Ribosome Structure......Page 2462 General Features of Ribosomal Architecture Revealed from the Subunit Structures......Page 2463 High-Resolution Structure of the Small Subunit......Page 2464 Medium-Resolution Structure of the 70S Ribosome......Page 2465 Further Reading......Page 2466 Chemical Structure of RNA......Page 2468 Ribonuclease P......Page 2469 Small Ribozymes that do not Require Divalent Metals......Page 2470 Further Reading......Page 2472 Secondary Structure......Page 2473 The Guanosine-Binding Site......Page 2474 Helix P1 and 5 Splice-Site Recognition......Page 2475 Further Reading......Page 2477 Tertiary Structure......Page 2478 Comparison with Other Ribozymes......Page 2480 Further Reading......Page 2481 Classes of Natural Ribozymes......Page 2482 Unnatural Ribozymes......Page 2484 SELEX......Page 2486 Further Reading......Page 2487 RNA Substrates that Undergo A-to-I Editing......Page 2488 Adenosine Deaminases that Act on RNA......Page 2489 Editosome Complex......Page 2490 Substitution Editing of Viral RNAs......Page 2491 Roles of RNA Editing......Page 2492 Further Reading......Page 2493 The RNA Polymerase Molecules......Page 2494 Alu Genes and Retrotransposition......P Annotation Written for a broad, cross-disciplinary audience, theEncyclopedia of Biological Chemistryaddresses the fundamental discipline of biological chemistry underlying virtually all of the life sciences. This compilation of more than 500 different entries encompasses all aspects of biochemistry, as well as the extensions of this subject into the related fields of molecular biology, cell biology, genetics and biophysics. This comprehensive encyclopedia covers all areas of biological chemistry written by more than 500 selected international experts. Articles are generously illustrated including more than 800 images in four-color. Each entry contains a clear, concise review of the topic along with illustrations, a glossary of technical terms and a section for additional reading. Each entry further contains general background and term definitions as well as a comprehensive review of the current research in the field. Students, science journalists and scientists seeking a concise introduction to specific topics will appreciate the clear, tabular format of each entry. Also available online via ScienceDirect featuring extensive browsing, searching, and internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information, pricing options and availability visit www.info.sciencedirect.com. *Four-volume set with topics arranged from A to Z for easy reference *Seven subject areas covering all areas of biological chemistry *Over 500 full-color articles of 4-9 pages each *Over 1300 illustrations throughout with 800 in 4-color and over 200 tables *Glossary of specialized terms and 'Further Reading' section provided for every article *Includes entries on the latest research techniques *Appropriate for students, researchers, and professionals Written for a broad, cross-disciplinary audience, the Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry addresses the fundamental discipline of biological chemistry underlying virtually all of the life sciences. This compilation of more than 500 different entries encompasses all aspects of biochemistry, as well as the extensions of this subject into the related fields of molecular biology, cell biology, genetics and biophysics. This comprehensive encyclopedia covers all areas of biological chemistry written by more than 500 selected international experts. Articles are generously illustrated including more than 800 images in four-color. Each entry contains a clear, concise review of the topic along with illustrations, a glossary of technical terms and a section for additional reading. Each entry further contains general background and term definitions as well as a comprehensive review of the current research in the field. Students, science journalists and scientists seeking a concise introduction to specific topics will appreciate the clear, tabular format of each entry.Also available online via ScienceDirect featuring extensive browsing, searching, and internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information, pricing options and availability visit (http://www.info.sciencedirect.com) www.info.sciencedirect.com .