Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures 2 Volume Set

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-estern Cultures......Page 1 Introduction.pdf......Page 0 Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-estern Cultures......Page 2 Advisory Board......Page 4 Personal Note From The Editor......Page 5 List of Contributors......Page 8 Acknowledgements......Page 13 Sec1......Page 14 Abacus......Page 15 References......Page 16 Abortion......Page 17 References......Page 18 Abraham Ibn Ezra......Page 19 Abubar Jaainfar al-Khazin......Page 20 Abubar Kamil......Page 21 Abubar ’l-Barakat......Page 22 Abubarl-Sbdotalt......Page 23 Abubar'l-Wafahamza......Page 24 References......Page 25 References......Page 26 Acoustics in Chinese Culture......Page 27 The Physical Nature of Sound......Page 28 Sociohistorical Evolution of Acumoxology......Page 29 The Historical Integration of the Various Vessel Theories into a Single System......Page 30 Medical Differences Between Acupuncture and Western Conventional Medicine......Page 31 References......Page 32 Agriculture: Ancient Methods......Page 33 Theories Explaining the Origins of Agriculture......Page 34 The Construction of Cities and the Secondary Products Revolution......Page 35 Early Agriculture Outside of Southwest Asia......Page 36 Water Management......Page 37 More Recent Developments......Page 38 References......Page 39 Agriculture in Africa......Page 40 Agriculture of the Ancient Maya......Page 42 Forms of Agriculture......Page 43 Upland Agriculture and Terrace Systems......Page 44 Lowland Intensive Agriculture......Page 45 Agriculture in China......Page 47 Extra: Chinese Agriculture and the “Great Debate”......Page 54 References......Page 55 Agriculture Today......Page 57 Agriculture in the Islamic World......Page 58 References......Page 60 Geography, Climate and Resource Potential......Page 61 Agricultural Development in Ancient and MedievalJapan......Page 62 Unique Development of Japanese Farming During the Edo Period......Page 63 Modernization in Agriculture After the Collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate......Page 64 The Dramatic Transformation After the Second World War......Page 65 The Origin and Evolution of Pacific Island Agriculture......Page 67 Traditional Agriculture in the Pacific Islands......Page 69 Agriculture in South and Central America......Page 70 Agroforestry in Africa......Page 81 Agroforestry: Agri-Silviculture......Page 83 Agroforestry: Field-and-Grove Systems......Page 87 The Field-and-Sacred Grove......Page 88 The Field-and-Woodlot: The Ifugao Pinugo......Page 89 The Field-and-Mixed Home Garden......Page 90 References......Page 91 Temporally Interstitial Trees, or the AgroforestryRotation......Page 92 Agroforestry: Harmonic Swiddens......Page 94 Aqua-Silviculture......Page 98 References......Page 99 References......Page 100 Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands......Page 101 References......Page 103 References......Page 104 Al-Birubarni......Page 105 Al-Birubarni and Geography......Page 110 Al-Bitbdotrubarji......Page 111 Alchemy in China......Page 112 References......Page 114 Alchemy in Islam......Page 115 References......Page 116 Al-Farghani......Page 117 Alfonso X......Page 118 Algebra, Surveyors'......Page 119 References......Page 122 Algebra in China......Page 123 Algebra in India: Bijaganbdotita......Page 126 Algebra in Islamic Mathematics......Page 127 References......Page 130 Algebra in the Malay World: A Case Study of Islamic Mathematics......Page 131 Al-Hamdani......Page 134 The Geographer......Page 135 The Historian......Page 136 The Astronomer......Page 137 The Physician......Page 138 References......Page 139 References......Page 141 References......Page 142 Al-Jawhari......Page 143 Al-Jazari......Page 144 Al-Karaji......Page 145 Al-Kashi......Page 146 Al-Khalili......Page 147 Al-Kharaqi......Page 148 Al-Khazini......Page 149 Al-Khujandi......Page 150 Al-Khwarizmi......Page 151 Al-Kindi......Page 152 References......Page 153 Almagest: Its Receptionand Transmission in the Islamic World......Page 154 Al-Mahani......Page 155 References......Page 156 Al-Maridini, Jamal al-Din, and Badral-Din......Page 157 References......Page 158 Al-Muhamzataman ibn Hubard......Page 159 Al-Nayrizi......Page 160 Alphabet......Page 161 Al-Qalasbdotadi......Page 165 Mathematical Works of al-Qalasbdotadi......Page 166 Al-Qubarhi (or Al-Kubarhi)......Page 167 References......Page 168 Al-Razi......Page 169 Al-Sbdotaghani......Page 170 Al-Shirazi......Page 171 References......Page 172 Al-Sijzi......Page 173 References......Page 174 Al-Tbdotabari......Page 175 Al-Uqlidisi......Page 176 Anatomy in Ancient India......Page 177 Brahmanic Period......Page 178 The Golden Period......Page 179 Ancient Egypt......Page 182 The Geography of Domestication......Page 186 Sequencing of Animal Species Entering Domestication......Page 187 References......Page 188 Animal Mummies......Page 190 References......Page 191 Approximation Formulae in Chinese Mathematics......Page 192 Archaeoastronomy of North Africa......Page 194 References......Page 200 Architectural Decoration in Islam: History and Techniques......Page 201 The Meaning, Purpose and Transmission of Architectural Decoration: Problems of Interpretation......Page 204 Stone......Page 205 Stone Cladding and Inlay......Page 206 Hazarbaf and Banna’hairspi......Page 207 Glazed Bricks......Page 208 Cut Tiles or Tile Mosaic......Page 209 Underglaze Painting: Ottoman Tiles and the Iznik Tradition......Page 210 Stucco......Page 211 References......Page 212 Architecture in Africa, with Special Reference to Indigenous Akan Building Construction......Page 213 Appendix: Timber Used in Building Construction......Page 216 The Javanese House: An Architectural Type......Page 217 Buildings for Worship: The Hindu–Buddhist Legacy in Javanese Architecture......Page 221 Buildings for Worship: The Islamic Legacy in Javanese Architecture......Page 222 The House Extended: Settlement, Palace and City......Page 223 References......Page 224 Architecture and Landscape in India......Page 225 References......Page 228 Faciality, Mataihi......Page 229 Ornament, Whakairo......Page 230 References......Page 231 Reference and Bibliographical Considerations......Page 232 Pyramids......Page 233 Palaces......Page 235 Market Places......Page 236 References......Page 237 Architecture in Palestine......Page 239 The Climate......Page 241 The House......Page 243 Initial Forms of the Traditional House......Page 245 New Forms of Palestinian Traditional Architecture......Page 246 The Court House......Page 247 The Central Hall House......Page 248 References......Page 252 References......Page 253 Arithmetic in Islamic Mathematics......Page 254 References......Page 256 References......Page 257 Aryabhatbdota......Page 258 Asada Goryu......Page 259 Astrolabe......Page 260 Mesopotamian Astrology......Page 262 The Origins of Astrology......Page 263 The Development of Astrology......Page 264 The Planets......Page 267 Saturn......Page 268 The Development of Birth Charts......Page 269 The Development of the Zodiac......Page 271 Mesopotamian Cosmology: The Cosmic State......Page 272 References......Page 273 Astrology in China......Page 276 Astrology in India......Page 278 Astrology in Islam......Page 281 Astronomical Instruments in India......Page 283 Armillary Spheres and Globes......Page 287 Quadrants......Page 288 References......Page 289 Astronomical Instruments in Japan......Page 290 Telescopes......Page 291 References......Page 292 Equatorial Torquetums......Page 293 Armillary Spheres, Celestial Globes, and Astronomical Clocks......Page 294 Sundials......Page 296 Astronomical Monuments in Polynesia and Micronesia......Page 298 References......Page 304 Astronomy......Page 306 Astronomy of the Australian Aboriginal People......Page 313 Astronomy in China......Page 317 References......Page 320 Astronomy in Egypt......Page 321 Astronomy in Hawai'i......Page 322 Astronomy of the Hebrews......Page 329 Astronomy in India......Page 331 References......Page 334 Indian Astronomy in the Later Han Dynasty......Page 335 The Jiuzhi-li......Page 336 References......Page 337 Agricultural Time Keeping......Page 338 Celestial Navigation......Page 343 References......Page 346 Astronomy in the Islamic World......Page 347 Greek Sources......Page 348 Mathematical Astronomy: The Tradition oftheZijes......Page 349 Planetary Tables and Ephemerides......Page 350 Spherical Astronomy and Spherical Trigonometry......Page 351 Other Observational Programs......Page 352 Regional Schools of Astronomy......Page 353 Transmission to Europe......Page 354 References......Page 355 Astronomy as Science in Japan: Chinese and Western Influences......Page 356 Socio-Political Purposes and Their Impact onDevelopment and Adaptation of Star Lore andMythology......Page 358 Cooperative Activity: Pragmatic Signs in the Stars......Page 359 Adaptation of Asian Cosmology for Power and Centrality: Takamatsu Zuka and Kitora Kofun......Page 362 Adapting Chinese Lore to Native Beliefs and Purposes: Orihime, Kengyuu, and Tanabata......Page 363 Hopes for the Future Built on a Rich But HiddenPast......Page 365 References......Page 366 Traditional Calendars in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Yunnan1For the calendars in mainland Southeast Asia, except for......Page 368 Traditional Astronomy and Modern AstronomyinThailand......Page 369 Rough History of Vietnamese Calendars......Page 370 Calendar Reformation Under Minh-manh......Page 372 References......Page 373 Astronomy in Mesoamerica......Page 374 Astronomy in Native North America......Page 378 Astronomy in Sub-Saharan Africa......Page 382 West Africa......Page 383 East Africa and Madagascar......Page 385 Central and Southern Africa......Page 386 References......Page 388 Indo–Tibetan Astronomy......Page 389 References......Page 392 Atomism in Islamic Thought......Page 393 Ātreya......Page 395 Aztec Science......Page 396 Cosmology, Astronomy, and Astrology......Page 397 Natural History and Ecology......Page 398 Applications of Mexica Science......Page 399 References......Page 400 Bakhshālī Manuscript......Page 401 References......Page 402 Balkhī School of Arab Geographers......Page 403 The Nara Period (710–784)......Page 975 Bamboo......Page 404 Ban&ubar; M&ubar;sā......Page 405 Technology......Page 2093 Basketry in Ancient Egypt......Page 406 Baudhāyana......Page 408 Beads......Page 409 Calendars in Mesoamerica......Page 459 References......Page 465 Water in India: Spiritual and Technical Aspects......Page 1182 Zhoubi Suanjing......Page 414 Bhāskara II......Page 416 Magnetism in Mesoamerica......Page 1278 Road Networks in Ancient Native America......Page 418 Bitumen in China......Page 419 Bone Technology in Africa......Page 420 References......Page 421 Katanda and the Harpoon in Africa......Page 422 Ornamentation and Symbolic Reasoning......Page 423 The Mathematical Writings of Ibn al‐Yāsamīn......Page 1114 Bone Tool Production in Later Prehistory......Page 424 References......Page 425 Brahmagupta......Page 426 What About Protecting Intellectual Property? Can Databases Not Easily Lead to Indigenous Peoples Losing Control over the Natural and Cultural Resources Their Groups Own?......Page 1189 Bread in Africa......Page 427 Five Milestones......Page 428 Horn of Africa......Page 429 West Africa......Page 430 References......Page 1195 References......Page 994 References......Page 431 Alleged Absence of Proofs in Indian Mathematics......Page 432 References......Page 433 Maps and Mapmaking in Japan......Page 1322 Buddhism and Science......Page 435 Timber-Handling Technology in Japan......Page 436 Quasi-Cyclic Time and the Soul......Page 2156 Valuable Experience Is Conserved in Traditional Buildings......Page 437 Walls......Page 438 Roof Structures......Page 439 Roofing Material......Page 441 Earthquake Resistance......Page 442 References......Page 806 Example 1: Traditional Bunghas in the Semidesert of Kutch, Gujarat, and India......Page 444 Example 2: The Afghan City House......Page 445 References......Page 446 Cakravala Method......Page 447 References......Page 974 References......Page 2091 References......Page 450 References......Page 452 Zhang Ji (Zhang Zhongjing)......Page 453 References......Page 1263 Calendars in India......Page 454 References......Page 456 Calendars in Islam......Page 457 References......Page 467 Religion and Science in the Native Americas......Page 468 References......Page 469 Science East and West......Page 470 Colors and Designs in Textiles......Page 1745 Celestial Vault and Sphere......Page 471 Ceramics, Mimbres......Page 472 Logic......Page 1242 The Designs......Page 475 Chapter 9: “Base and height” (gougu 句股)......Page 476 References......Page 477 References......Page 478 Clay Processing......Page 479 Canopus and the Cosmic Tree......Page 481 Preforming......Page 482 The Buddha......Page 1986 Tenerife Island......Page 1379 Structure......Page 485 Postfiring......Page 487 The Mythic Creation of the World......Page 488 Integrated pest management......Page 490 The Third Milestone: Appearance of Green-Glazed Porcelain (Celadon) in Southern China in the Han–Jin Dynasty......Page 491 The Fourth Milestone: Breakthrough of White-Glazed Porcelain in Northern China in the Sui–Tang Dynasty......Page 493 Use of Saggers and Improvement in Firing Techniques......Page 494 The Fifth Milestone: Time of Monochrome-Glazed, Polychrome-Painted, and Sculpted Porcelain from the Song to Qing Dynasty......Page 495 Ancient Writings......Page 1092 Selection and Refinery of Raw Materials......Page 496 Contribution to Chinese Culture......Page 498 Ibn Ba„&tbdot;„„&tbdot;„&ubar;„&tbdot;„a......Page 500 Coming of Age for Korean Hard-Paste Porcelain......Page 501 Buddha......Page 786 Celadon in the Koryŏ Dynasty......Page 504 Punch'ŏng and Whiteware in the Chosŏn Dynasty......Page 507 References......Page 2145 Analytical Approaches to the Study of Maya Pottery......Page 510 Hermeneutic Relations with Maya Pottery......Page 512 Rope and Knots in Ancient Egypt......Page 1920 The Power of Knowledge......Page 515 Time in Native North America......Page 2153 Mesoamerica Prior to 1200 BCE......Page 518 References......Page 796 Olmec Pottery in Oaxaca......Page 519 Compositional Approaches to Olmec Pottery......Page 520 Note: The Debate on Olmec Interaction......Page 522 References......Page 523 Cambodia......Page 524 Myanmar (Burma)......Page 525 Thailand (Sawankhalok or Si Satchanalai Ware)......Page 526 Brown and White Ware......Page 527 Thailand (Sukhothai Ware)......Page 528 Thailand (Suphan Buri Ware)......Page 529 Towards a New Epistemology for Mathematics......Page 530 Picture Maps......Page 1338 Thailand (Sing Buri or Maenam Noi Ware)......Page 531 The Independent or Autonomous Seaport......Page 2004 References......Page 532 Geometry in Islamic Mathematics......Page 533 Chemistry in China......Page 534 Spread of Glass in India......Page 1044 Childbirth......Page 536 References......Page 539 The Populace......Page 540 Racism......Page 541 Chinese Science......Page 542 References......Page 1159 History of Urbanization in Ancient Israel up to the Persian Period......Page 548 Iron Age Town-Planning......Page 550 Note 1......Page 551 References......Page 553 The Growth of the Swahili Towns......Page 555 General Culture......Page 558 Livelihood......Page 559 References......Page 560 The Last City, La Venta......Page 561 Prehistoric Wine and Ancient Viticulture......Page 564 References......Page 565 A Long but Little-Known Urban History......Page 566 Recent Urban Trends in West Africa: Rapid Demographic Change......Page 569 The Economic Roots of Urban Development......Page 570 Construction of Towns and Cities......Page 572 Note 1 Inconsistent Definitions and Measures Vagaries......Page 575 Note 3 Migration, Urbanisation and Development: A Controversial Issue......Page 576 References......Page 578 City Planning in Ancient India......Page 579 City Planning: Aztec City Planning......Page 580 Ancient Mesoamerican Principles of Urban Planning......Page 581 Tula Innovations......Page 582 Aztec Innovations......Page 583 Single-Temple Pyramids......Page 584 Commoner Housing......Page 585 The Mathematical Texts......Page 1392 Meteorology in India......Page 1677 Tenochtitlan......Page 587 References......Page 589 City Planning: Inca City Planning......Page 590 Early Prehistory-Flakes and Projectile Points......Page 2042 City Planning: Maya City Planning......Page 593 Geomancy and Maya City Planning......Page 594 Yaxchilan......Page 595 Clocks: Astronomical Clocks in China......Page 596 Islam......Page 597 Geometry......Page 1407 Coir in India: History of Technology......Page 599 Muslim Invasion......Page 603 Phase 1: The East India Company......Page 604 Phase 2: The British Raj......Page 605 Diseases, Public Health, and Research......Page 607 Colonialism and Medicine in the Malay Peninsula......Page 608 Colonialism and Science......Page 612 References......Page 617 References......Page 618 Ibn „&Zbdot;„uhr......Page 1140 Science in History......Page 621 Some Remarks on Historiography......Page 622 Visions of the World......Page 623 Conquest and Early Colonial Times......Page 624 Wild Vegetable and Mushroom Collection in the National Park......Page 625 Independence: The Basin Metaphor......Page 626 Developments in the Newly Independent Countries......Page 628 References......Page 630 Colonialism and Science in India......Page 631 References......Page 633 Botany and British Colonialism......Page 634 Colonial Botany in the Malay Peninsula......Page 635 References......Page 636 Combinatorics in Indian Mathematics......Page 637 Combinatory Practices in Nonmathematical Fields......Page 638 Combinatorics After the Thirteenth Century......Page 639 Comets and Meteors in the Islamic World......Page 640 Luong Thecircacute Vinh: The Case of a “Mathematical Agiography”......Page 642 Computation: Chinese Counting Rods......Page 643 References......Page 644 Pānini's Grammar......Page 645 Kerala Mathematicians......Page 646 Conics......Page 647 Consciousness in Ancient India......Page 648 Mind in Indian Philosophy (Darśana)......Page 649 Further Universal Categories......Page 650 Copper Mining in the Great Lakes (USA)......Page 651 References......Page 655 Cosmetic Surgery in Ancient India......Page 656 Cosmologies of India......Page 658 Indra and Vrbdottra......Page 659 Primordial Incest......Page 660 The Waters and Fires of Chaos......Page 661 Expansion, Separation, and Differentiation......Page 662 Return to Chaos......Page 663 References......Page 664 A Connective Cosmos......Page 665 San Science: Past, Present and Future......Page 668 Endnote 2: San and New Ageism......Page 669 References......Page 670 Origins......Page 671 Maya Cosmology......Page 672 Aztec/Nahua Cosmology......Page 675 Note 1: Historical Time and Space in Mesoamerica......Page 678 Note 2: Sources and Their Problems......Page 679 Note 3: Did the Ancient Mesoamericans Believe in Gods?......Page 680 Note 4: Mesoamerican Screenfold Books......Page 681 Note 6: Olmec Cosmology......Page 682 Note 7: The Maya Hero Twins......Page 683 Note 8: A Nahua Cosmogram......Page 684 References......Page 685 Cotton Weaving in Ethiopia and Nubia......Page 686 References......Page 687 Surveying in Egypt......Page 688 References......Page 689 The Script Form......Page 690 Gold Production during Kushitic Times in Nubia......Page 691 The Origin of the Cuneiform Script......Page 692 References......Page 693 Dams and Irrigation in Ancient Arabia......Page 695 Vāgbha&tbdot;a......Page 2089 References......Page 697 Ibn Al‐„&ain;„Arabī......Page 698 References......Page 699 References......Page 700 References......Page 1103 Water Management and Reservoirs in India and Sri Lanka......Page 2216 References......Page 702 Knowledge Systems of the Incas......Page 1190 References......Page 709 Water Management in Petra......Page 710 Daksbdotinottara Bhitti Yantra......Page 715 Technology in the Islamic World......Page 2111 Ancient Tradition......Page 1742 Dyes......Page 717 India......Page 757 References......Page 719 East and West......Page 720 Vākyakara„&nbdot;„a......Page 726 References......Page 2349 East and West: China in the Transmission of Knowledge from East to West......Page 729 Women's Art......Page 1881 East and West: Islam’in’the Transmission of Knowledge East to West......Page 738 Transmission of Knowledge to Islam......Page 739 Transmission of Knowledge to the Latin West......Page 742 River Sarasvatī: Myth or Reality?......Page 2213 Salt Production in Mesoamerica......Page 747 References......Page 751 History of Entomology in India......Page 956 References......Page 754 Eclipses in the Americas......Page 755 Textiles in Africa......Page 2119 Elements: Reception of Euclid's Elements in the Islamic World......Page 758 References......Page 962 Knowledge Systems: Local Knowledge......Page 1211 References......Page 764 References......Page 768 Makaranda......Page 1282 Department of Veterinary Medicine in the Time’of’Qajars......Page 772 Biological Ecology......Page 774 Indigenous Ecology......Page 775 Colonial Ecology......Page 776 The Nature of Matter and Causal Laws......Page 1834 Environment and Nature: Australian Aboriginal People......Page 782 Supplemental Water Supply Systems Supply Redundancy......Page 783 References......Page 784 Proofs in Indian Mathematics......Page 785 References......Page 787 Precession of the Equinoxes......Page 1841 Intensive Agriculture and Urbanization......Page 789 Problems......Page 790 Future......Page 791 Environment and Nature in Buddhist Thailand: Spirit(s) of Conservation......Page 793 Number Theory in India......Page 1775 Buddhism and Spirit Beliefs......Page 795 Spirituality and Conservation......Page 797 References......Page 800 Ibn „&Hbdot;„awqal......Page 803 The Hebrew Bible and Jewish Law......Page 805 Environment and Nature: India......Page 807 Environment and Nature: Islam......Page 809 References......Page 810 Environment and Nature: Japan......Page 811 References......Page 814 Caveats......Page 815 The Native American Relationship with Nature......Page 816 The Ecological Indian?......Page 821 Conclusions......Page 823 Extra: The Ecological Indian?......Page 824 References......Page 1226 Ethnobotany......Page 827 Indian Glass......Page 1040 Ethnobotany of Alaska: A Southwestern Alaska „Perspective......Page 830 Regional Setting......Page 832 Use of Indigenous Flora......Page 833 Plant Harvest, Preparation, and Storage......Page 836 Changes in Plant Use......Page 840 References......Page 842 Scope......Page 843 Botanical Gardens......Page 844 Plants in Religion and Medicine: Divine Plants......Page 845 Metl......Page 847 Self-Reliance......Page 848 Iztauhyatl......Page 849 Mass......Page 2278 Ethnobotany in China......Page 850 References......Page 852 Tongren Zhenjiu Shuxue Tujing......Page 2169 Coffea arabica L.: Rubiaceae (Bunna in Amharic)......Page 853 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmel: Rosaceae (Kosso in Amharic)......Page 854 Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trot.: Poaceae (Teff’in’Amharic)......Page 855 Maps and Mapmaking in Asia (Prehistoric)......Page 857 Plants Used in Medicine......Page 858 Pheromones......Page 1821 Pathological Extensions......Page 861 References......Page 862 Shipbuilding in India: Wadia Shipbuilders......Page 863 Food Plants......Page 865 Incense, Condiments, Seasonings, and Narcotics......Page 866 Building Stones......Page 867 References......Page 868 Malaysia's Botanical Richness......Page 869 The Geographical and Historical Components of the Malay Knowledge of Plants......Page 870 References......Page 2039 Malay Classification and Exploitation of Botanical’Materials......Page 871 Assemblage......Page 873 References......Page 877 Red Bean or Mescal Bean (Sophora secundiflora)......Page 878 Ololiuqui and Badoh Negro (Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea violacea)......Page 879 Arithmetic......Page 880 Extra: The Bow and Arrow in Prehistoric Mesoamerica......Page 2051 References......Page 881 Drugs......Page 882 Some Interesting Medicinal Plants......Page 884 Writing: Maya Writing......Page 887 Ethnobotany in Pakistan......Page 897 Major Issues Pertaining to Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Conservation, and Income‐Generation in Pakistan......Page 898 Priorities for Capacity Building in Ethnobotany......Page 901 Cuneiform Writing......Page 2342 Conservation Practices......Page 902 Historic Considerations......Page 903 On the Origin of Common and Some Latin Plant.Names......Page 904 Transmission of Information......Page 905 Observations......Page 2074 Preparation of Herbal Drugs......Page 908 Rope Stretching......Page 910 Further Possible Investigation and Recommended Bibliography......Page 912 Ancient India......Page 914 Ibn Tibbon......Page 916 China and the Far East......Page 2077 Concepts of Space/Time......Page 918 References......Page 919 Geographic, Climatic, and Environmental Aspects of Inka Mathematics......Page 920 Understanding Preconquest Inka Culture......Page 922 Quechua Number Words......Page 924 Looking Deeper: Weaving, Symmetry, and Counting......Page 925 A Bit More About Counting, Pairs, and Even Numbers......Page 928 A Few Remarks About Astronomy......Page 929 References......Page 930 Obelisks in Ancient Egypt......Page 932 References......Page 934 References......Page 939 Fishing in the Indus Valley......Page 944 Fishing in Mesopotamia......Page 947 Complex Geometry and Philosophy for Common Folk......Page 952 Food Technology in Africa......Page 957 References......Page 960 Alcoholic Drinks......Page 961 Science as a Western Phenomenon......Page 995 Food Technology in the Pacific Islands......Page 964 Dehydrated Products......Page 965 Maps and Mapmaking: Celestial East Asian Maps......Page 1291 Freezing......Page 966 Rocket Launch Device: Hwa-Cha (Fire Cart) and Launch Pad......Page 1915 References......Page 967 Forestry in India......Page 968 References......Page 969 Exploitation Forestry......Page 970 Industrial-Age Forestry......Page 971 References......Page 973 The Kamakura Period (1185–1334)......Page 976 The Momoyama Period (1573–1603)......Page 977 China......Page 1823 References......Page 978 Gas: Exploitation and Use of Natural Gas in Premodern China......Page 980 References......Page 2123 Jamu......Page 982 Zheng He......Page 2361 Early Forms of Water Management in South India and Sri Lanka......Page 984 Ancient World Geography......Page 985 Knowledge of the Island......Page 986 Cartography......Page 987 Land Surveying and Design of Irrigation Systems......Page 988 References......Page 1090 Geographical Knowledge in Non‐„Western Cultures......Page 990 Understanding Nature and Humanity......Page 991 Sense of Place......Page 992 References......Page 993 References......Page 1001 Knowledge Systems of the Olmec......Page 1002 References......Page 1004 Science in China......Page 1957 Science of the Native Americans......Page 1972 References......Page 1009 References......Page 1918 Resource Adaptation......Page 1010 Historic Geographies: Cultural Conflict and Emergent Identities......Page 1011 Contemporary Geographies of Native Peoples......Page 1012 Extra 1: Indigenous American Knowledge Transmission......Page 1202 Geomancy in China......Page 1013 Ibn Al‐Zarqāllu......Page 1015 References......Page 1016 Egypt and Babylonia......Page 1017 Ancient India......Page 1018 The Western Misrepresentation of Quasi-Cyclic Time as Supercyclic......Page 2158 China and the Far East......Page 1019 Geometry in Africa......Page 1020 References......Page 1022 Maps and Mapmaking in China......Page 1297 Geometry in India......Page 1028 References......Page 1031 References......Page 1034 Geometry in Japanese Mathematics......Page 1035 Measuring Tools......Page 1036 Mesopotamia......Page 1037 Measures of Cubic Capacity......Page 2262 Later Developments......Page 1039 References......Page 1049 Globes......Page 1050 The Cardinal Directions......Page 1052 The Noon Shadow......Page 1053 References......Page 1054 Gou‐Gu Theorem......Page 1055 Gunpowder......Page 1056 References......Page 1058 Sbdotadr al-Shariainah......Page 1059 V......Page 2189 References......Page 2208 Hair Care......Page 1060 Indigenous Views in Non-Western Societies......Page 1062 Hair in Egypt: People and Technology Used in Creating Egyptian Hairstyles and Wigs......Page 1063 Wigmaking......Page 1064 References......Page 1067 Hairstyling Technology„’and Techniques Used in Ancient Egypt......Page 1068 a) dirham al-fidbdotdbdota (silver dirham)......Page 1069 The Razor–Usage......Page 1070 The Composite Tool (Curling‐Tongs) and Tweezers......Page 1071 Combs and Hairpins......Page 1072 References......Page 1074 Haridatta......Page 1075 References......Page 1076 Technology and Culture......Page 1889 Zodiac in Indian Astronomy......Page 2368 Hay'a......Page 1077 References......Page 1078 Śatānanda......Page 1079 The Veterinary Profession in the Time of’the’Safavids......Page 1082 International Regulations on Traditional Medicine......Page 1083 References......Page 1938 "Appearance and Reality"......Page 1084 Frontal-Profile Stance in Ancient Egyptian Art......Page 1085 Canons as Holograms......Page 1086 Conclusion......Page 1088 Honey in Mythology and Religion......Page 1091 Revival of Honey in Medicine......Page 1094 The Transitional Period......Page 1966 Huangdi Jiuding Shendan Jing......Page 1095 Measurement of Time......Page 1096 Zu Chongzhi......Page 1097 References......Page 1099 References......Page 1100 Ibn Al‐A„&ain;„lam......Page 1102 Li Bing......Page 1233 References......Page 1104 Technology and Environment......Page 2105 Mathematics......Page 1105 The Rohri Hills......Page 1868 Unsolved Problems......Page 1107 Ibn al‐Maj&ubar;sī......Page 1108 Scientific Practice......Page 1887 Ibn al‐Nafīs......Page 1109 Investigation Department (Eshraf………) or Veterinary Organization of the Safavids......Page 1281 Ibn al‐Quff (al‐Karakī)......Page 1110 References front-matter 1 Titlepage.pdf -1 Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-estern Cultures 1 Halftitle.pdf -1 Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-estern Cultures 2 Editors.pdf -1 Advisory Board 4 Editors1.pdf -1 Personal Note From The Editor 5 LOC.pdf -1 List of Contributors 8 Acknowledgements.pdf -1 Acknowledgements 13 Introduction.pdf -1 Introduction to the Second Edition 14 Sec1 14 fulltext 15 A 15 Abacus 15 References 16 Abortion 17 References 18 Abraham Bar Hbdotiyya (Savasorda) 19 References 19 Abraham Ibn Ezra 19 References 20 Abubar Jaainfar al-Khazin 20 References 21 Abubar Kamil 21 References 22 Abubar ’l-Barakat 22 References 23 Abubar'l-Fidahamza 23 References 23 Abubarl-Sbdotalt 23 References 24 Abubar'l-Wafahamza 24 References 25 Abubar Maainshar 26 References 26 Acoustics in Chinese Culture 27 The Physical Nature of Sound 28 References 29 Acupuncture 29 Terminology 29 Sociohistorical Evolution of Acumoxology 29 Historical Development of Acumoxologic Theories 30 How Acupoints Were Discovered 30 The Origin of Vessel Theories 30 The Historical Integration of the Various Vessel Theories into a Single System 30 Daoist Philosophy Guided both Theories and ClinicalPractice 31 The “Pearls” of Classic Acumoxology Theory 31 The Internationalization of Acumoxology 31 Medical Differences Between Acumoxology and Chinese Herbal Medicine 31 Medical Differences Between Acupuncture and Moxibustion 31 Medical Differences Between Acupuncture and Western Conventional Medicine 31 Biomedicalization of Classic Acumoxology 32 What Diseases Can Acupuncture Treat?/How Effective is Acupuncture Therapy? 32 Limitations of Acumoxology Therapy 32 Questions Remaining 32 References 32 Acyuta Pisbdotaratbdoti 33 References 33 Agriculture: Ancient Methods 33 Food Production Terminology 34 Evidence for Ancient Agriculture 34 Theories Explaining the Origins of Agriculture 34 The Rise and Development of Agriculture in Southwest Asia 35 The Construction of Cities and the Secondary Products Revolution 35 Early Agriculture Outside of Southwest Asia 36 Continental Transfer of Crops 37 Water Management 37 Terracing 38 Soil Fertility Management 38 More Recent Developments 38 References 39 Agriculture in Africa 40 References 42 Agriculture of the Ancient Maya 42 Forms of Agriculture 43 Upland Agriculture and Terrace Systems 44 Lowland Intensive Agriculture 45 References 47 Agriculture in China 47 Extra: Chinese Agriculture and the “Great Debate” 54 References 55 Agriculture in India 57 Agriculture Today 57 References 58 Agriculture in the Islamic World 58 References 60 Agriculture in Japan 61 Geography, Climate and Resource Potential 61 Origins of Japanese Farming Based on Paddy Rice 62 Agricultural Development in Ancient and MedievalJapan 62 Unique Development of Japanese Farming During the Edo Period 63 Modernization in Agriculture After the Collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate 64 The Dramatic Transformation After the Second World War 65 References 67 Agriculture in the Pacific 67 The Origin and Evolution of Pacific Island Agriculture 67 Traditional Agriculture in the Pacific Islands 69 References 70 Agriculture in South and Central America 70 References 81 Agroforestry in Africa 81 References 83 Agroforestry: Agri-Silviculture 83 References 87 Agroforestry: Field-and-Grove Systems 87 The Field-and-Forest 88 The Field-and-Sacred Grove 88 The Field-and-Woodlot: The Ifugao Pinugo 89 The Field-and-Mixed Home Garden 90 References 91 Agroforestry: Field-and-Interstitial Support Trees 92 Spatially Interstitial Trees 92 Temporally Interstitial Trees, or the AgroforestryRotation 92 References 94 Agroforestry: Harmonic Swiddens 94 References 98 Agroforestry: Special Systems 98 Aqua-Silviculture 98 Api-Silviculture 99 References 99 Agroforestry: Systems with Animals and Grasses 100 Silvipasture 100 Agri-Silvipasture 100 References 100 Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands 101 References 103 Aida Yasuaki 103 References 103 Ajima Naonobu 104 References 104 Al-Battani 105 References 105 Al-Birubarni 105 References 110 Al-Birubarni and Geography 110 References 111 Al-Bitbdotrubarji 111 References 112 Alchemy in China 112 References 114 Alchemy in Islam 115 References 116 Al-Damiri 117 References 117 Al-Farghani 117 References 118 Al-Fazari 118 References 118 Alfonso X 118 References 119 Algebra, Surveyors' 119 References 122 Algebra in China 123 References 126 Algebra in India: Bijaganbdotita 126 References 127 Algebra in Islamic Mathematics 127 References 130 Algebra in the Malay World: A Case Study of Islamic Mathematics 131 References 134 Al-Hbdotajjaj 134 References 134 Al-Hamdani 134 Background and Life 135 The Geographer 135 The Poet 136 The Philologist 136 The Faqīh 136 The Historian 136 The Philosopher 137 The Astronomer 137 The Economist 138 The Metallurgist 138 The Physician 138 The Man 139 References 139 Al-Hashimi 141 References 141 Al-Idrisi 142 References 142 Al-Jawhari 143 References 144 Al-Jazari 144 References 145 Al-Jurjani 145 References 145 Al-Karaji 145 References 146 Al-Kashi 146 References 147 Al-Khalili 147 References 148 Al-Kharaqi 148 References 149 Al-Khazini 149 References 150 Al-Khujandi 150 References 151 Al-Khwarizmi 151 References 152 Al-Kindi 152 References 153 Almagest: Its Receptionand Transmission in the Islamic World 154 References 155 Al-Mahani 155 References 156 Al-Majritbdoti 156 References 156 Al-Mahamzamubarn 157 References 157 Al-Maridini, Jamal al-Din, and Badral-Din 157 References 158 Al-Masainubardi (Abuhamza ‘l Hbdotasan ainAli Ibn al-Hbdotusayn al-Masainubardi) 158 References 158 Al-Muqaddasi 159 References 159 Al-Muhamzataman ibn Hubard 159 References 160 Al-Nayrizi 160 References 161 Alphabet 161 References 165 Al-Qalasbdotadi 165 Mathematical Works of al-Qalasbdotadi 166 References 167 Al-Qubarhi (or Al-Kubarhi) 167 References 168 Al-Razi 169 References 170 Al-Sbdotaghani 170 References 171 Al-Samarqandi 171 References 171 Al-Shirazi 171 References 172 Al-Sijzi 173 References 174 Al-Sbdotubarfi 174 References 174 Al-Suyubartbdoti 175 References 175 Al-Tbdotabari 175 References 176 Al-Uqlidisi 176 References 177 Al-ainUrdbdoti 177 References 177 Anatomy in Ancient India 177 Prehistoric Period 178 Protohistoric Period 178 Historic Period 178 Vedic Period 178 Brahmanic Period 178 The Golden Period 179 References 182 Ancient Egypt 182 References 186 Animal Domestication 186 The Geography of Domestication 186 Sequencing of Animal Species Entering Domestication 187 Why Domesticate Animals? 188 References 188 Animal Mummies 190 References 191 Approximation Formulae in Chinese Mathematics 192 References 194 Archaeoastronomy of North Africa 194 References 200 Architectural Decoration in Islam: History and Techniques 201 The Meaning, Purpose and Transmission of Architectural Decoration: Problems of Interpretation 204 Architectural Decoration by Media 205 Stone 205 Stone Mosaic 206 Ablaq 206 Joggled or Interlocking Stones 206 Muqarnas Vaulting Over Portals 206 Monochrome and Polychrome Geometric Interlace 206 Stone Cladding and Inlay 206 Stone Sculpture 207 Bricks 207 Hazarbaf and Banna’hairspi 207 Glazed Bricks 208 Glazed Tiles 209 Lustre Tiles 209 Cut Tiles or Tile Mosaic 209 The Cuerda Seca (Dry Thread) Tiles 210 Underglaze Painting: Ottoman Tiles and the Iznik Tradition 210 Stucco 211 References 212 Architecture in Africa, with Special Reference to Indigenous Akan Building Construction 213 Appendix: Timber Used in Building Construction 216 Fiber/Rope/Cordage Sources 217 Sources of Thatch, Plaster, etc 217 References 217 Architecture in Java 217 The Javanese House: An Architectural Type 217 Modular Coordination and Mobility 221 Buildings for Worship: The Hindu–Buddhist Legacy in Javanese Architecture 221 Buildings for Worship: The Islamic Legacy in Javanese Architecture 222 The House Extended: Settlement, Palace and City 223 References 224 Architecture and Landscape in India 225 References 228 Architecture of the Maori People 229 Faciality, Mataihi 229 Ornament, Whakairo 230 Space, Kauhanga 231 References 231 Architecture in Mesoamerica 232 Reference and Bibliographical Considerations 232 Architectural Types 233 Pyramids 233 Palaces 235 Market Places 236 Ball-courts 237 Fortifications 237 References 237 Architecture in Palestine 239 Factors Influencing Palestinian Traditional Architecture 241 Geography 241 Natural Building Materials 241 The Climate 241 Socioeconomic Factors 243 The House 243 Initial Forms of the Traditional House 245 New Forms of Palestinian Traditional Architecture 246 Rectangular House with Repetitive Initial Units 247 The Court House 247 The Gallery House 248 The Central Hall House 248 References 252 Arithmetic in India: Patbdotiganbdotita 253 References 253 Arithmetic in Islamic Mathematics 254 References 256 Armillary Spheres in China 256 References 256 Armillary Spheres in India 257 References 257 Aryabhatbdota 258 References 259 Asada Goryu 259 References 260 Astrolabe 260 References 262 Astrology in Babylonia 262 Mesopotamian Astrology 262 Questions of Definition 263 The Modern Sources 263 The Origins of Astrology 263 The Development of Astrology 264 The Ritual Calendar 267 The Planets 267 The Sun 268 The Moon 268 Saturn 268 Jupiter 269 Mars 269 Venus 269 Mercury 269 The Development of Birth Charts 269 The Development of the Zodiac 271 Mesopotamian Cosmology: The Cosmic State 272 References 273 Astrology in China 276 References 278 Astrology in India 278 References 281 Astrology in Islam 281 References 283 Astronomical Instruments in India 283 References 287 Astronomical Instruments in the Islamic World 287 Armillary Spheres and Globes 287 Astrolabes 288 Quadrants 288 Sundials 289 Miscellaneous 289 References 289 Astronomical Instruments in Japan 290 Telescopes 291 Octants and Sextants 292 References 292 Astronomical Instruments in Korea 293 Equatorial Torquetums 293 Armillary Spheres, Celestial Globes, and Astronomical Clocks 294 Astrolabes 296 Sundials 296 References 298 Astronomical Monuments in Polynesia and Micronesia 298 References 304 Astronomy 306 References 313 Astronomy of the Australian Aboriginal People 313 References 317 Astronomy in China 317 References 320 Astronomy in Egypt 321 References 322 Astronomy in Hawai'i 322 References 329 Astronomy of the Hebrews 329 References 331 Astronomy in India 331 References 334 Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China 335 Indian Astronomy in the Later Han Dynasty 335 Indian Astronomy in Chinese Buddhist Texts 336 The Madengqie-jing 336 The Daji-jing 336 Indian Astronomy During the Tang Dynasty 336 The Jiuzhi-li 336 Yixing 337 Other Texts in the Tang Dynasty 337 References 337 Astronomy in the Indo-Malay Archipelago 338 The Celestial Landscape 338 Agricultural Time Keeping 338 The Iban Calendar 343 Celestial Navigation 343 Summary and Conclusion 346 References 346 Astronomy in the Islamic World 347 Arab Starlore 348 Persian and Indian Sources 348 Greek Sources 348 Theoretical Astronomy 349 Mathematical Astronomy: The Tradition oftheZijes 349 Planetary Tables and Ephemerides 350 Stellar Coordinates and Uranography 351 Spherical Astronomy and Spherical Trigonometry 351 Observation Programs and Regional Schools of Astronomy: Al-Mahamzamubarn's Circle 352 Other Observational Programs 352 Regional Schools of Astronomy 353 Transmission to Europe 354 References 355 Astronomy in Japan: A Cultural History 356 Astronomy as Science in Japan: Chinese and Western Influences 356 Socio-Political Purposes and Their Impact onDevelopment and Adaptation of Star Lore andMythology 358 Oyaninai Boshi: Linealism, Vitalism, and Optimismin the Stars 359 Cooperative Activity: Pragmatic Signs in the Stars 359 Adaptation of Asian Cosmology for Power and Centrality: Takamatsu Zuka and Kitora Kofun 362 Adapting Chinese Lore to Native Beliefs and Purposes: Orihime, Kengyuu, and Tanabata 363 Prevalence of the Sun: Akemashite Omedetou Gozaimasu 365 Hopes for the Future Built on a Rich But HiddenPast 365 References 366 Astronomy in Mainland SoutheastAsia 368 Astronomy in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Yunnan 368 Traditional Calendars in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Yunnan1For the calendars in mainland Southeast Asia, except for 368 Controversy Regarding the Dai calendar in Yunnan,China 369 Historical Development of the Traditional Calendars in Yunnan and Burma 369 Traditional Astronomy and Modern AstronomyinThailand 369 Burmese Constellations 370 Astronomy in Vietnam 370 Previous Researches 370 Vietnamese Astronomy 370 Rough History of Vietnamese Calendars 370 Calendar Reformation Under Minh-manh 372 References 373 Astronomy in Mesoamerica 374 References 378 Astronomy in Native North America 378 References 382 Astronomy in Sub-Saharan Africa 382 Sahara Region 383 West Africa 383 East Africa and Madagascar 385 Central and Southern Africa 386 References 388 Astronomy in Tibet 389 Indo–Tibetan Astronomy 389 Sino–Tibetan Astronomical Science 392 References 392 Atomism in Islamic Thought 393 References 395 Ātreya 395 References 396 Aztec Science 396 Cosmology, Astronomy, and Astrology 397 Natural History and Ecology 398 Medicine and Health 399 Applications of Mexica Science 399 References 400 fulltext2 401 B 401 Bakhshālī Manuscript 401 References 402 Balkhī School of Arab Geographers 403 References 404 Bamboo 404 References 405 Ban&ubar; M&ubar;sā 405 References 2093 Basketry in Ancient Egypt 406 References 408 Baudhāyana 408 References 409 Beads 409 References 459 Ben Cao Gang Mu 413 References 414 Bhāskara I 414 References 416 Bhāskara II 416 References 418 Bian Que 1906 References 418 Bitumen in China 419 References 420 Bone Technology in Africa 420 The Taphonomy1Taphonomy is the study of the conditions and processes by which organisms become fossilized or are preserved. of 421 The First Humanly Modified Bones in the World—Termite Extraction Tools 421 Katanda and the Harpoon in Africa 422 Ornamentation and Symbolic Reasoning 423 The Use of Ivory 423 Bone Tool Production in Later Prehistory 424 References 425 Brahmagupta 426 References 427 Bread in Africa 427 Early History 428 Ancient Egypt 428 Horn of Africa 429 Sudan 430 Northern Africa 1195 Sahara 994 East African Coast 430 West Africa 430 Contemporary Issues 431 References 431 Brewing in Africa 432 Beer Production 1842 The Social Consumption of Beer 432 Beer as a Motivating Ingredient 433 The Social Hierarchy of Beer 433 References 1322 Buddhism and Science 435 References 436 Building Construction 436 Traditional Construction Technologies are Still of Great Value 436 Tradition Goes with Esthetics 437 Valuable Experience Is Conserved in Traditional Buildings 437 The Major Construction Elements 438 Walls 438 Slabs 439 Roof Structures 439 Roofing Material 441 Earthquake Resistance 442 Climatic Adaptation 443 Example 1: Traditional Bunghas in the Semidesert of Kutch, Gujarat, and India 444 Example 2: The Afghan City House 445 References 446 fulltext3 447 C 447 Cakravala Method 447 References 449 Calculus 449 References 450 Calendars in East Asia 450 Modernization and Westernization 452 References 452 Calendars in Egypt 2359 References 1263 Calendars in India 454 References 2105 Calendars in Islam 457 References 459 Calendars in Mesoamerica 459 References 2365 Calendars in South America 413 References 467 Candraśekhara Sāmanta 1901 References 2367 Caraka 2244 References 469 Cashewnut Processing on the Malabar Coast 1947 References 1745 Celestial Vault and Sphere 471 References 472 Ceramics, Mimbres 472 Situating the Pottery in Time and Place 472 The Designs 475 Collections 1169 The End of the Mimbres Pottery Tradition 476 References 1834 Ceramics in Africa 779 Social Background 1188 Manufacturing Process 478 Clay Extraction 479 Clay Processing 479 Shaping 481 Roughing Out 481 Preforming 482 Decoration 483 Drying 1379 Firing 485 Fuel 485 Structure 485 Postfiring 487 References 991 Ceramics in China 490 Five Milestones 428 The First Milestone: Appearance of Pottery in the Early Neolithic Age 1819 The Second Milestone: Successful Firing of Stamped Hard Pottery in the Late Neolithic Age and Appearance of Proto-Porcelain in the Shang-Zhou Dynasty 491 The Third Milestone: Appearance of Green-Glazed Porcelain (Celadon) in Southern China in the Han–Jin Dynasty 491 The Fourth Milestone: Breakthrough of White-Glazed Porcelain in Northern China in the Sui–Tang Dynasty 493 Use of New Materials and Improvements in the Recipes for the Body and Glaze 494 Increase in the Firing Temperature and Improvement of the Kilns 494 Use of Saggers and Improvement in Firing Techniques 494 The Fifth Milestone: Time of Monochrome-Glazed, Polychrome-Painted, and Sculpted Porcelain from the Song to Qing Dynasty 495 Three Technological Breakthroughs 496 Selection and Refinery of Raw Materials 496 Improvements of Kilns and Increase in Firing Temperatures 498 Invention and Development of Glaze 498 Contribution to Chinese Culture 498 References 500 Ceramics in Korea 1017 Coming of Age for Korean Hard-Paste Porcelain 501 Togi Up to the United Silla Kingdom 501 Celadon in the Koryŏ Dynasty 504 Punch'ŏng and Whiteware in the Chosŏn Dynasty 507 References 509 Ceramics: Maya Pottery 510 Analytical Approaches to the Study of Maya Pottery 510 Hermeneutic Relations with Maya Pottery 512 A Social Analysis of the Making of Maya Pottery 513 The Power of Knowledge 515 References 516 Ceramics: Olmec Pottery 518 Mesoamerica Prior to 1200 BCE 518 The Olmec and the San Lorenzo Horizon 2155 Types of Olmec Pottery at San Lorenzo 519 Olmec Pottery in Oaxaca 519 Compositional Approaches to Olmec Pottery 520 Note: The Debate on Olmec Interaction 522 References 1137 Ceramics in Southeast Asia 523 Cambodia 524 Laos 525 Myanmar (Burma) 525 Thailand (Sawankhalok or Si Satchanalai Ware) 526 Green-Glazed Ware (Celadon) 527 Brown and White Ware 527 Iron-Decorated Ware 528 Thailand (Sukhothai Ware) 528 Thailand (Suphan Buri Ware) 529 Thailand (Phitsanulok and Nakorn Thai Ware) 1334 Thailand (Northern Thai Ware) 530 Kalong 530 Sankampaeng, Phayao, Nan 1845 Phan 530 Thailand (Lamphun (Haripunjaya) Ware) 531 Thailand (Sing Buri or Maenam Noi Ware) 531 Vietnam 531 References 532 Chao Yuanfang 533 References 534 Chemistry in China 534 References 535 Chen Yan 536 References 536 Childbirth 536 Non-Western Birth Today 539 References 539 Childbirth in India 540 Obstetrics in Ancient India 540 The Populace 540 The Medieval Ages and Later 541 Modern Obstetrics in India 541 References 542 Chinese Science 542 References 1159 Cities and Towns in Ancient Israel (Bronze and Iron Ages) 548 Background 548 History of Urbanization in Ancient Israel up to the Persian Period 548 Iron Age Town-Planning 550 Note 1 551 Note 2 553 Note 3 553 Note 4 553 References 553 Cities and Towns in East Africa 555 The Growth of the Swahili Towns 555 The Origin of The Swahili Towns 558 Some Cultural Aspects of the Swahili Towns 558 General Culture 558 Religion 559 Writing and Arithmetic 559 Architecture 559 Livelihood 559 Swahili Towns in Ruins 560 References 560 Cities and Towns of the Olmec 561 The Last City, La Venta 561 The First City, San Lorenzo 2292 References 565 Cities and Towns in West Africa 566 A Long but Little-Known Urban History 566 Recent Urban Trends in West Africa: Rapid Demographic Change 569 The Economic Roots of Urban Development 570 Construction of Towns and Cities 572 Note 1 Inconsistent Definitions and Measures Vagaries 575 Note 2 The Urban Future: Mega-Cities or Small Towns? 576 Note 3 Migration, Urbanisation and Development: A Controversial Issue 576 References 578 City Planning in Ancient India 579 References 580 City Planning: Aztec City Planning 580 Historical Development of Planning Principles 581 Ancient Mesoamerican Principles of Urban Planning 581 Teotihuacan Innovations 582 Tula Innovations 582 Aztec Innovations 583 Urban Architecture 584 Twin-Temple Pyramids 584 Single-Temple Pyramids 584 Circular Pyramids 585 Ballcourts 585 Palaces 585 Special-Purpose Buildings 585 Altars and Small Platforms 585 Commoner Housing 585 Categories of City 586 City-State Capitals 586 Tenochtitlan 587 References 589 City Planning: Inca City Planning 590 References 593 City Planning: Maya City Planning 593 Maya Architecture, Sculptural Programs, and Cosmology 594 Geomancy and Maya City Planning 594 Yaxchilan 595 References 596 Clocks: Astronomical Clocks in China 596 References 597 Clocks and Watches 597 Islam 597 China 1407 References 599 Coir in India: History of Technology 599 References 603 Colonial Medicine in India 603 Ancient India 603 Muslim Invasion 603 European Colonization 604 Portuguese 604 British 604 Phase 1: The East India Company 604 Phase 2: The British Raj 605 Women 607 Diseases, Public Health, and Research 607 Research 608 References3 608 Colonialism and Medicine in the Malay Peninsula 608 References 612 Colonialism and Science 612 References 617 Colonialism and Science in Africa 618 References 618 Colonialism and Science in the Americas 619 Science in History 621 Some Remarks on Historiography 622 Visions of the World 623 Conquest and Early Colonial Times 624 The Established Colonies 902 Independence: The Basin Metaphor 626 Developments in the Newly Independent Countries 628 References 630 Colonialism and Science in India 631 References 633 Colonialism and Science in the Malay World 634 Botany and British Colonialism 634 Colonial Botany in the Malay Peninsula 635 Colonial Botany and Malay Ethnobotany 636 References 636 Combinatorics in Indian Mathematics 637 References 638 Combinatorics in Islam 638 Combinatory Practices in Nonmathematical Fields 638 Combinatory Practices in Mathematics 639 Ibn Munainim 639 Combinatorics After the Thirteenth Century 639 References 640 Comets and Meteors in the Islamic World 640 References 1442 Compass 642 References 643 Computation: Chinese Counting Rods 643 References 644 Computing Science in Ancient India 645 The Śulbasubartras 645 Jyotisha 645 Pānini's Grammar 645 Chhandahśāstra and Nātya Śāstra 646 The Siddhāntic Age 646 Navya Nyāya 646 Kerala Mathematicians 646 References 647 Conics 647 References 648 Consciousness in Ancient India 648 Limitations of Language 649 Recursive Reality and Mind 649 Mind in Indian Philosophy (Darśana) 649 Parallels with Cognitive Science 650 Further Universal Categories 650 References 651 Copper Mining in the Great Lakes (USA) 651 References 655 Cosmetic Surgery in Ancient India 656 References 658 Cosmologies of India 658 Cosmology as Illustrated in the Hindu Temple 659 Chaos and Equilibrium 659 Indra and Vrbdottra 659 Churning of the Cosmic Ocean 660 Rescue of Earth from the Waters 660 Primordial Incest 660 The Waters and Fires of Chaos 661 Expansion, Separation, and Differentiation 662 Symbols of Expansion, Separation and Differentiation 663 Return to Chaos 663 References 664 Cosmology of the African San People 665 A First People 665 A Connective Cosmos 665 San Science: Past, Present and Future 668 Endnote 1: The Name Game – San or Bushman? 669 Endnote 2: San and New Ageism 669 Endnote 3: The Meaning of San Rock Art 670 References 670 Cosmology in Mesoamerica 671 Shared Features of Traditional Mesoamerican Cosmologies 671 Origins 671 Maya Cosmology 672 Aztec/Nahua Cosmology 675 Note 1: Historical Time and Space in Mesoamerica 678 Note 2: Sources and Their Problems 679 Note 3: Did the Ancient Mesoamericans Believe in Gods? 680 Note 4: Mesoamerican Screenfold Books 681 Note 5: Maya Myths in Historic Manuscripts 682 Note 6: Olmec Cosmology 682 Note 7: The Maya Hero Twins 683 Note 8: A Nahua Cosmogram 684 References 685 Cotton Weaving in Ethiopia and Nubia 686 References 687 Crops in Pre-Columbian America 2080 References 689 Cuneiform 690 The Script Form 690 Languages Written in Cuneiform 691 The Origin of the Cuneiform Script 692 Early Non-Cuneiform Scripts 693 Decipherment 693 References 693 fulltext4 695 D 695 Dams and Irrigation in Ancient Arabia 695 References 1172 Decimal Notation 974 References 698 Decimal System and Measurement in East Asia 699 Decimal System 699 Measurement 699 References 700 Deśāntara 701 Devācārya 2216 References 702 Divination: Science, Technology, and the Mantic Arts in Traditional China 1190 References 709 Dwellings and Settlements 2229 References 715 Dyeing: Indigo Dyeing in Sierra Leone 715 Process for Indigo Dye Production and Dyeing’of’Fabric 1742 Pattern Production 717 References 1826 Dyes 717 References 719 fulltext5 720 E 720 East and West 720 References 726 East and West: Africa in the Transmission of Knowledge from East to West 2186 References 2349 East and West: China in the Transmission of Knowledge from East to West 729 References 734 East and West: India in the Transmission of Knowledge from East to West 734 References 738 East and West: Islam’in’the Transmission of Knowledge East to West 738 Transmission of Knowledge to Islam 739 Transmission of Knowledge to the Latin West 742 References 746 Eclipse Observations 747 References 751 Eclipses: Calculating and Predicting’Eclipses 751 References 1184 Eclipses in the Americas 755 Extra: Eclipses in the Americas 757 References 1826 Elements: Reception of Euclid's Elements in the Islamic World 758 References 962 Embalming in Egypt 1211 References 764 Engineering 765 References 768 Environment and Nature in Africa 1282 References 2126 Environment and Nature in the Amazon 774 Biological Ecology 774 Indigenous Ecology 775 Colonial Ecology 776 References 1834 Environment and Nature in the Andes 779 References 782 Environment and Nature: Australian Aboriginal People 782 Economic Use of the Environment 2232 Modification of the Environment? 783 Traditional Ways of Looking After the Land 784 Environmental Dispossession 1190 Aboriginal People and the Environment Today 1758 References 785 Environment and Nature in Buddhism 785 Buddha 501 Teachings 1123 Clergy 788 Laity 789 The West 1975 Problems 790 Future 791 References 433 Environment and Nature in Buddhist Thailand: Spirit(s) of Conservation 793 Spiritual Geography 1775 Buddhism and Spirit Beliefs 795 Buddhism and Forest Development 2155 Spirituality and Conservation 797 References 800 Environment and Nature: China 1118 References 805 Environment and Nature„’in Hebrew’Thought 805 The Hebrew Bible and Jewish Law 805 Middle Ages and Early Modern Times 443 Recent Past and Present 806 References 806 Environment and Nature: India 807 References 809 Environment and Nature: Islam 809 References 810 Environment and Nature: Japan 811 References 814 Environment and Nature: The Natural Environment in Native American Thought 815 Caveats 815 The Native American Relationship with Nature 816 The Ecological Indian? 821 Conclusions 823 Extra: The Ecological Indian? 824 References 826 Ethnobotany 827 References 829 Ethnobotany of Alaska: A Southwestern Alaska „Perspective 830 Regional Setting 832 Use of Indigenous Flora 833 Native Plant Taxonomy 836 Plant Harvest, Preparation, and Storage 836 Changes in Plant Use 840 References 842 Ethnobotany of the Aztecs 843 Scope 843 Sources 844 The Aztec Interest in Plants 844 Botanical Gardens 844 Medicinal Plants 845 Plants in Religion and Medicine: Divine Plants 845 Some Plants with Special Interest for the Aztecs 847 Maize 847 Picietl 847 Metl 847 Ulli 848 Coanenepilli 848 Iztauhyatl 849 References 2278 Ethnobotany in China 850 References 852 Ethnobotany in Ethiopia 2169 Botany 853 Ethnobotany 853 Coffea arabica L.: Rubiaceae (Bunna in Amharic) 853 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill: Simaroubaceae (Waginos in Geez, or Yedega Abalo in Amharic) 854 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmel: Rosaceae (Kosso in Amharic) 854 Guizotia abyssinca (L. F.) Cass.: Asteraceae (Noug’in Amharic) 855 Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trot.: Poaceae (Teff’in’Amharic) 855 Ethnobotany of the Incas 1338 Medicinal Plants 857 The Inca Herbalist‐Physician: Hampicamayok 857 Plants Used in Medicine 858 Procreation and Plants 860 Magic Plants 861 Plants–Religion–Magic 861 Divination 861 References 862 Ethnobotany in India 863 Food Plants 865 Incense, Condiments, Seasonings, and Narcotics 866 Liquor Producing Plants 2037 Medicinal Plants 867 Socio‐Religious and Socio‐Cultural Plants 867 References 868 Ethnobotany: Malay Ethnobotany 869 Is There Such a Thing as Malay Ethnobotany? 869 Malaysia's Botanical Richness 869 The Geographical and Historical Components of the Malay Knowledge of Plants 870 Concepts and Philosophy of Malay Ethnobotany 2039 Malay Classification and Exploitation of Botanical’Materials 871 The Future of Malay Ethnobotany 873 Extra: Plants on a Day in the Village, Twenty Years’Ago 873 Extra: Three Malaysian Plant Species in the Hall’of’Fame 2041 A Criminal Tree? 873 Tongkat Ali, the “Malay Viagra”? 877 Sarawak Tree in the Race to Find a Medicine for’AIDS 877 References 877 Ethnobotany in Mesoamerica 878 Peyote (Lophophora williamsii ) 878 Red Bean or Mescal Bean (Sophora secundiflora) 878 Ololiuqui and Badoh Negro (Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea violacea) 879 Toloache (Datura inoxia, D. discolor, D. Wrightii, D.’kymatocarpa, D. ceratocaula) 880 Puffballs (Lycoperdon marginatum, L. mixtecorum) 1406 Mushrooms (Teonanacatl) (Conocybe, Panaeolus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia species) 2051 References 881 Ethnobotany in Native North America 882 Health and Disease 882 Drugs 882 Psychological Drugs 884 Some Interesting Medicinal Plants 884 References 887 Ethnobotany in the Pacific 2336 References 897 Ethnobotany in Pakistan 897 Major Issues Pertaining to Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Conservation, and Income‐Generation in Pakistan 898 Major Developmental Issues in Pakistan 901 Conservation Priorities 901 Priorities for Capacity Building in Ethnobotany 901 Ayubia National Park: An Example 902 Conservation and Developmental Issues at ANP 902 Wild Vegetable and Mushroom Collection in the National Park 902 Conservation Practices 902 References 903 Ethnobotany in South America 903 Historic Considerations 903 On the Origin of Common and Some Latin P