Electrochemical power sources fundamentals, systems, and applications : metal-air batteries : present and perspectives

Metal-air is a promising battery system that uses inexpensive metals for its negative electrode while unlimited, free and non-toxic oxygen is used for its positive electrode, however, only primary systems have been commercialized so far. Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications - Metal-Air Batteries: Present and Perspectives offers a comprehensive understanding of metal-air batteries as well as the solutions to the issues for overcoming the related difficulties of the secondary (rechargeable) system. Although metal-air batteries are widely studied as low-cost high-energy systems, their commercialization is limited to primary ones due to currently limited cycle life and insufficient reliability. For realization of the secondary systems, this book offers comprehensive understanding of metal-air batteries, including the details of both electrodes, electrolyte, cell/system, modelling and applications. Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications - Metal-Air Batteries: Present and Perspectives provides researchers, instructors, and students in electrochemistry, material science and environmental science; industry workers in cell manufacturing; and government officials in energy, environmental, power supply, and transportation with a valuable resource covering the most important topics of metal-air batteries and their uses. Outlines the general characteristics of metal-air compared with conventional batteries Offers a comprehensive understanding of various metal-air, featuring zinc, and lithium Contains comparisons and issues among various metal-air batteries and research efforts to solve them Includes applications and market prospects Front-Matte_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals--Systems--and-A Metal‐Air Batteries: Present and Perspectives Copyrigh_2020_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals--Systems--and-Appl Copyright Contributor_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals--Systems--and-A Contributors Series-overvi_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals--Systems--and Series overview Chapter-1---Introduction-general-f_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Funda 1 . Introduction—general features of metal-air batteries 1.1 Concept 1.1.1 Basics 1.1.2 Classification 1.2 Main components 1.2.1 Metal electrode 1.2.2 Electrolyte 1.2.3 Air electrode 1.2.4 Separator 1.2.5 Subsystem 1.3 Performances References Chapter-2---Components--met_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals 2 . Components: metal-air batteries 2.1 Metal anodes 2.1.1 Aqueous system 2.1.1.1 Zinc (Zn) 2.1.1.1.1 Zinc for primary batteries 2.1.1.1.2 Zinc for secondary batteries 2.1.1.2 Iron (Fe) 2.1.1.3 Magnesium (Mg) 2.1.1.4 Aluminum (Al) 2.1.2 Nonaqueous system 2.1.2.1 Lithium (Li) 2.1.2.2 Sodium (Na) 2.2 Air cathodes 2.2.1 Air electrode in a Zn-air primary battery 2.2.2 Air electrode in a Zn-air secondary battery 2.2.3 O2 electrodes in Li-O2 batteries 2.3 Electrolytes 2.3.1 Aqueous system 2.3.2 Nonaqueous system References Chapter-3---Primary-zinc-_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals-- 3 . Primary zinc-air batteries 3.1 General overview 3.2 History 3.3 The electrochemistry behind ZABs 3.3.1 Zinc electrode 3.3.2 Air electrode 3.4 Safety and environmental impact 3.5 Summary and outlook References Chapter-4---Alternative-chemistrie_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Funda 4 . Alternative chemistries in primary metal-air batteries 4.1 A general overview of primary metal-air batteries 4.1.1 Introduction 4.1.2 Aqueous metal-air batteries 4.1.2.1 Electrochemical processes 4.1.2.2 Self-corrosion of anode 4.1.2.3 Metallurgical factors in corrosion 4.1.3 Nonaqueous metal-air batteries 4.1.4 ORR catalysts and gas diffusion cathodes 4.2 Magnesium-air batteries 4.2.1 History 4.2.2 Mg-air battery and Mg electrochemistry 4.2.3 Anodes for Mg-air batteries 4.2.4 Electrolyte additives for Mg-air batteries 4.2.5 Air electrodes for Mg-air batteries 4.3 Aluminum-air batteries 4.3.1 History 4.3.2 Al-air battery and the Al electrochemistry 4.3.3 Anodes for Al-air batteries 4.3.4 Air electrodes for Al-air batteries 4.3.5 Electrolytes for Al-air batteries 4.3.5.1 Aqueous electrolyte 4.3.5.2 Nonaqueous electrolyte 4.4 Silicon-air batteries 4.4.1 Aqueous electrolyte 4.4.2 Nonaqueous electrolyte 4.5 Challenges and perspectives References Chapter-5---Secondary-aqueous-zinc-a_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fun 5 . Secondary aqueous zinc-air battery—Electrically rechargeable 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Cell design 5.3 Zinc electrode 5.3.1 Shape change of the zinc electrode 5.3.2 Formation of zinc dendrites 5.3.3 Influencing the shape of metallic zinc deposits 5.3.4 Electrode design 5.4 Separator 5.5 Oxygen/air electrodes 5.6 Summary and outlook References Chapter-6---Secondary-zinc-air-batt_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fund 6 . Secondary zinc-air batteries – mechanically rechargeable 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Zinc solubility in the alkaline electrolyte of mechanically rechargeable systems 6.3 Zinc-air batteries with slurry electrodes 6.3.1 Characteristics of zinc slurry electrodes 6.3.2 Development at Compagnie Générale d'Electricité (CGE) 6.3.3 Activity at the continental Group, Inc., Energy Systems Laboratory (ESL) 6.3.4 Technology at Pinnacle Research Institute (PRI) 6.4 Zinc-air batteries operated beyond the zincate solubility limit 6.5 Zinc-air batteries using a static bed of zinc particles 6.5.1 Development at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) 6.5.2 Development at Metallic Power/ZincNyx/MGX renewables 6.6 Zinc-air batteries with mechanical recharge at Electric Fuel Limited (EFL) 6.7 State of charge determination 6.8 Conclusions References Chapter-7---Secondary-lithium-and_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundam 7 . Secondary lithium and other alkali-air batteries 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Fundamentals of nonaqueous Li-O2 chemistry 7.3 Challenges in nonaqueous Li-O2 batteries 7.3.1 Highly reactive oxygen species 7.3.1.1 Superoxide 7.3.1.2 Peroxide 7.3.1.3 Singlet oxygen 7.4 Electrochemically “irreversible” products 7.5 The unstable lithium anode 7.6 Developments in nonaqueous Li-O2 batteries 7.6.1 Electrolytes 7.6.1.1 Solvent design with hydrogen-site substitution 7.6.1.2 Concentrated electrolytes 7.6.1.3 Inorganic molten salts 7.6.1.4 Ionic liquids 7.6.2 Cathode host materials 7.6.2.1 Surface-coated carbon cathodes 7.6.2.2 Noncarbonaceous cathodes 7.6.2.3 “Closed” systems that operate without oxygen ingress or egress 7.6.3 Catalysts 7.6.3.1 Heterogeneous catalysts 7.6.3.2 Homogeneous catalysts 7.6.4 Anodes 7.6.4.1 Anode protection 7.6.4.2 Alternative anode materials 7.7 Aqueous Li-O2 batteries 7.7.1 Battery chemistry and challenges 7.7.2 Solid electrolytes 7.7.3 Electrocatalysts 7.7.4 Cell design 7.8 The important sister systems 7.8.1 Sodium-oxygen batteries 7.8.2 Potassium-oxygen batteries 7.9 Conclusions and outlook References Chapter-8---Other-secondary-m_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamenta 8 . Other secondary metal-air batteries 8.1 Alternative secondary metal-air batteries—aqueous 8.1.1 General overview of alternative aqueous secondary metal-air batteries 8.1.1.1 Fe-air secondary batteries 8.1.1.2 Aqueous metal hydride-air batteries 8.1.1.3 Vanadium-air secondary batteries 8.1.1.4 Metal-air secondary batteries with hybrid electrolytes 8.2 Alternative secondary metal-air batteries—non-aqueous 8.2.1 General overview of alternative nonaqueous secondary metal-air batteries 8.2.1.1 Al-air secondary battery 8.2.1.2 Ca-air secondary battery 8.2.1.3 Solid oxide Fe-air secondary battery 8.2.1.4 Oxygen shuttle type solid oxide metal-air battery 8.3 Outlook References Chapter-9---Modeling-and-simulat_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundame 9 . Modeling and simulation of metal-air batteries 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Multiscale modeling methods for metal-air batteries 9.2.1 Thermodynamic models of chemical and electrochemical equilibrium 9.2.2 Density functional theory 9.2.3 Molecular dynamics 9.2.4 Lattice Boltzmann method 9.2.5 Volume-averaged continuum modeling 9.3 Computational materials screening 9.3.1 ORR and OER catalysts 9.3.2 Metals and metal oxides 9.3.3 Electrolytes and additives 9.4 Model-based electrode and cell design 9.4.1 Metal electrodes 9.4.2 Air electrodes 9.4.3 Cell and system design 9.5 Summary and outlook References Chapter-10---Applications_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals-- 10 . Applications and markets 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Principles of the applicability of electrochemical systems 10.1.2 Link between cell properties and application requirements 10.1.2.1 Important cell properties (cell level) 10.1.2.2 Important battery requirements (module level) 10.1.2.3 Relations between the two parameter sets 10.1.3 Operating principles 10.1.4 Hybrid solutions using other electrochemical systems 10.2 Applications 10.2.1 Applications for primary batteries 10.2.1.1 Zn–air hearing aids 10.2.1.2 Aluminum–air batteries 10.2.1.3 Magnesium–air batteries 10.2.2 Applications for secondary batteries, mechanically refuelable 10.2.2.1 Electric Fuel Ltd. 10.2.2.2 Zoxy 10.2.3 Applications for secondary batteries, electrically charged 10.2.3.1 Zinium 10.2.3.2 Zinc8 10.2.4 Other companies 10.2.4.1 Eos 10.2.4.2 ReVolt 10.2.4.3 NantEnergy (Fluidic Energy). 10.3 Introduction availability, environmental, costs, recycling, safety 10.3.1 Material availability and environmental aspects 10.3.2 Costs 10.3.2.1 Material costs 10.3.2.2 Production costs 10.3.2.3 Operating costs 10.3.2.4 Recycling costs 10.3.3 Safety 10.4 Market: portable and stationary 10.4.1 Market for portable batteries 10.4.2 Market for electric vehicle batteries 10.4.3 Market for stationary batteries 10.5 Conclusion and outlook References Index_2021_Electrochemical-Power-Sources--Fundamentals--Systems--and-Applica Index A B C D E F G H I L M N O P R S T V W X Z