Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition

The use of electric power substations in generation, transmission, and distribution remains one of the most challenging and exciting areas of electric power engineering. Recent technological developments have had a tremendous impact on all aspects of substation design and operation. With 80% of its chapters completely revised and two brand-new chapters on energy storage and Smart Grids, **Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition** provides an extensive updated overview of substations, serving as a reference and guide for both industry and academia. Contributors have written each chapter with detailed design information for electric power engineering professionals and other engineering professionals (e.g., mechanical, civil) who want an overview or specific information on this challenging and important area. This book: * Emphasizes the practical application of the technology * Includes extensive use of graphics and photographs to visually convey the book’s concepts * Provides applicable IEEE industry standards in each chapter * Is written by industry experts who have an average of 25 to 30 years of industry experience * Presents a new chapter addressing the key role of the substation in Smart Grids Editor John McDonald and this very impressive group of contributors cover all aspects of substations, from the initial concept through design, automation, and operation. The book’s chapters—which delve into physical and cyber-security, commissioning, and energy storage—are written as tutorials and provide references for further reading and study. As with the other volumes in the __Electric Power Engineering Handbook__ series, this book supplies a high level of detail and, more importantly, a tutorial style of writing and use of photographs and graphics to help the reader understand the material. Several chapter authors are members of the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Substations Committee and are the actual experts who are developing the standards that govern all aspects of substations. As a result, this book contains the most recent technological developments in industry practice and standards. A volume in the Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. **Other volumes in the set:** * K12642 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856284) * K12648 Power Systems, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856338) * K13917 Power System Stability and Control, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439883204) * K12643 Electric Power Transformer Engineering, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856291) Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition 4 Contents 6 Preface 8 Editor 10 Contributors 12 1 How a Substation Happens 14 1.1 Background 14 1.2 Need Determination 15 1.3 Budgeting 15 1.4 Financing 16 1.5 Traditional and Innovative Substation Design 16 1.6 Site Selection and Acquisition 17 1.7 Design, Construction, and Commissioning Process 18 1.7.1 Station Design 18 1.7.2 Station Construction 21 1.7.3 Station Commissioning 21 References 21 2 Gas-Insulated Substations 22 2.1 Sulfur Hexafluoride 22 2.2 Construction and Service Life 24 2.2.1 Circuit Breaker 26 2.2.2 Current Transformers 26 2.2.3 Voltage Transformers 27 2.2.4 Disconnect Switches 27 2.2.5 Ground Switches 28 2.2.6 Interconnecting Bus 29 2.2.7 Air Connection 30 2.2.8 Power Cable Connections 30 2.2.9 Direct Transformer Connections 31 2.2.10 Surge Arrester 32 2.2.11 Control System 34 2.2.12 Gas Monitor System 35 2.2.13 Gas Compartments and Zones 35 2.2.14 Electrical and Physical Arrangement 36 2.2.15 Grounding 37 2.2.16 Testing 38 2.2.17 Installation 38 2.2.18 Operation and Interlocks 38 2.2.19 Maintenance 39 2.3 Economics of GIS 39 References. 39 3 Air-Insulated Substations: Bus/Switching Configurations 42 3.1 Introduction 42 3.2 Single Bus Arrangement 42 3.3 Double Bus–Double Breaker Arrangement 43 3.4 Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement 44 3.5 Double Bus–Single Breaker Arrangement 45 3.6 Ring Bus Arrangement 46 3.7 Breaker-and-a-Half Arrangement 46 3.8 Comparison of Configurations 48 4 High-Voltage Switching Equipment 50 4.1 Introduction 50 4.2 Ambient Conditions 50 4.3 Disconnect Switches 51 4.4 Load Break Switches 62 4.5 High-Speed Grounding Switches 66 4.6 Power Fuses 66 4.7 Circuit Switchers 68 4.8 Circuit Breakers 71 5 High-Voltage Power Electronic Substations 76 5.1 Introduction 76 5.2 HVDC Converters 77 5.3 FACTS Controllers 93 5.4 Converter Technologies: For Smart Power and Grid Access 98 5.5 Control and Protection System 103 5.6 Losses and Cooling 106 5.7 Civil Works 107 5.8 Reliability and Availability 107 5.9 Outlook and Future Trends 108 Acknowledgments 112 References 112 6 Interface between Automation and the Substation 118 6.1 Physical Challenges 118 6.1.1 Components of a Substation Automation System 118 6.1.2 Locating Interfaces 119 6.1.3 Environment 121 6.1.4 Electrical Environment 121 6.2 Measurements 122 6.2.1 What Measurements Are Needed 122 6.2.2 Performance Requirements 123 6.2.3 Characteristics of Digitized Measurements 125 6.2.4 Instrument Transformers 128 6.2.4.1 Current Transformers 128 6.2.4.2 Voltage Sources 130 6.2.5 New Measuring Technology 130 6.2.6 Substation Wiring Practices 131 6.2.7 Measuring Devices 131 6.2.7.1 Transducers 131 6.2.7.2 Intelligent Electronic Devices as Analog Data Sources 132 6.2.8 Scaling Measured Values 132 6.2.9 Integrated Energy Measurements: Pulse Accumulators 133 6.3 State (Status) Monitoring 134 6.3.1 Contact Performance 134 6.3.2 Ambiguity 134 6.3.3 Wetting Sources 135 6.3.4 Wiring Practices 136 6.4 Control Functions 136 6.4.1 Interposing Relays 136 6.4.2 Control Circuit Designs 137 6.4.3 Latching Devices 138 6.4.4 Intelligent Electronic Devices for Control 138 6.5 Communication Networks inside the Substation 139 6.5.1 Point-to-Point Networks 139 6.5.2 Point-to-Multipoint Networks 139 6.5.3 Peer-to-Peer Networks 140 6.5.4 Optical Fiber Systems 140 6.5.4.1 Fiber Loops 141 6.5.4.2 Fiber Stars 142 6.5.4.4 Ethernet over Fiber 142 6.5.5 Communications between Facilities 142 6.5.6 Communication Network Reliability 143 6.5.7 Assessing Channel Capacity 143 6.6 Testing Automation Systems 143 6.6.1 Test Facilities 144 6.6.1.1 Control 144 6.6.1.2 Status Points 144 6.6.1.3 Measurements 144 6.6.1.4 Programmed Logic 145 6.6.2 Commissioning Test Plan 145 6.6.3 In-Service Testing 145 6.7 Summary 146 References 146 7 Substation Integration and Automation 148 7.1 Introduction 148 7.2 Open Systems 149 7.3 Operational versus Nonoperational Data 149 7.3.1 Operational Data 149 7.3.2 Nonoperational Data 149 7.3.3 Configuration Data 150 7.4 Data Flow 150 7.4.1 Level 1: Field Devices 151 7.4.2 Level 2: Data Concentrator 151 7.4.3 Level 3: SCADA and Data Warehouse 151 7.4.4 Communications with the Substation (Layer 2 to Layer 3) 151 7.5 Asset Management 151 7.6 Redundancy 152 7.7 System Integration Technical Issues 152 7.7.1 Protocol Considerations 153 7.7.2 Understanding System Architecture: Documentation 153 7.7.3 System Architecture Design Considerations 154 7.7.3.1 Green Field versus Brown Field 154 7.7.4 Serial Communications 154 7.7.4.1 RS-232/EIA-232 154 7.7.4.2 RS-422 155 7.7.4.3 RS-485/EIA-485/TIA-485 155 7.7.4.4 Fiber Optics 155 7.7.5 Highly Available Networks 156 7.7.5.1 Ring Topology 156 7.7.5.2 High-Availability Seamless Redundancy 156 7.7.5.3 Parallel Redundancy Protocol 156 7.7.5.4 Star Topology 156 7.7.5.5 Hybrid Topologies 156 7.7.6 Factory Acceptance Test 157 7.8 System Components 157 7.8.1 Remote Terminal Unit 157 7.8.2 Data Concentrators 158 7.8.3 Substation Gateways 158 7.8.4 Protocol Convertors 158 7.8.5 Remote Input/Output Devices 159 7.8.6 Logic Processors 159 7.8.7 Bay Controllers 159 7.8.8 Human Machine Interface 159 7.8.9 Ethernet Switches 160 7.8.10 Routers and Layer 3 Switches 161 7.9 Cyber Security 161 7.10 Automation Applications 161 7.11 OSI Communications Model 162 7.11.1 Application (Layer 7) 162 7.11.2 Presentation (Layer 6) 162 7.11.3 Session (Layer 5) 162 7.11.4 Transmission (Layer 4) 163 7.11.5 Network (Layer 3) 163 7.11.6 Data Link (Layer 2) 163 7.11.7 Physical (Layer 1) 163 7.12 Protocol Fundamentals 163 7.12.1 DNP 3.0 163 7.12.2 Proprietary Protocols 164 7.12.3 IEC 60870 164 7.12.4 Modbus 164 7.12.5 IEC 61850 165 7.12.5.1 IEC 61850 Configuration Paradigm 165 7.12.5.2 GOOSE 165 7.12.5.3 Station Bus and Process Bus 166 7.13 Synchrophasors 166 7.13.1 Wide Area Situational Awareness 167 7.13.2 Phasor Measurement Units 167 7.13.3 Phasor Data Concentrator 167 7.14 Summary 168 Bibliography 168 8 Oil Containment 170 8.1 Oil-Filled Equipment in Substation 171 8.1.1 Large Oil-Filled Equipment 171 8.1.2 Cables 171 8.1.3 Mobile Equipment 171 8.1.4 Oil-Handling Equipment 171 8.1.5 Oil Storage Tanks 172 8.1.6 Other Sources 172 8.1.7 Spill Risk Assessment 172 8.2 Containment Selection Consideration 173 8.3 Oil Spill Prevention Techniques 174 8.3.1 Containment Systems 174 8.3.1.1 Yard Surfacing and Underlying Soil 174 8.3.1.2 Substation Ditching 174 8.3.1.3 Collecting Ponds with Traps 175 8.3.1.4 Oil-Containment Equipment Pits 175 8.3.1.5 Fire-Quenching Considerations 176 8.3.1.6 Volume Requirements 176 8.3.1.7 Typical Equipment Containment Solutions 177 8.3.2 Discharge Control Systems 179 8.3.2.1 Oil–Water Separator Systems 180 8.3.2.2 Flow Blocking Systems 181 8.4 Warning Alarms and Monitoring 183 References 184 9 Community Considerations 186 9.1 Community Acceptance 186 9.2 Planning Strategies and Design 187 9.2.1 Site Location and Selection, and Preparation 187 9.2.1.1 Wetlands 187 9.2.1.2 Site Contamination 188 9.2.1.3 Potable Water and Sewage 188 9.2.2 Aesthetics 188 9.2.2.1 Visual Simulation 188 9.2.2.2 Landscaping and Topography 189 9.2.2.3 Color 189 9.2.2.4 Lighting 190 9.2.2.5 Structures 190 9.2.2.6 Enclosures 190 9.2.2.7 Bus Design 191 9.2.2.8 Noise Sources 191 9.2.2.9 Typical Noise Levels 192 9.2.2.10 Governmental Regulations 192 9.2.2.11 Noise Abatement Methods 193 9.2.3 Electric and Magnetic Fields (IEEE Std. 644-1994) 194 9.2.3.1 Electric and Magnetic Field Sources in a Substation 194 9.2.3.2 Electric Fields 194 9.2.3.3 Magnetic Fields 195 9.2.4 Safety and Security 195 9.2.4.1 Fences and Walls 195 9.2.4.2 Lighting 195 9.2.4.3 Grounding 196 9.2.4.4 Fire Protection 196 9.2.5 Permitting Process 196 9.3 Construction 196 9.3.1 Site Preparation 196 9.3.1.1 Clearing, Grubbing, Excavation, and Grading 196 9.3.1.2 Site Access Roads 196 9.3.1.3 Water Drainage 197 9.3.2 Noise 197 9.3.3 Safety and Security 197 9.3.4 Site Housekeeping 197 9.3.5 Hazardous Material 197 9.4 Operations 197 9.4.1 Site Housekeeping 197 9.4.1.1 Water and Sediment Control 197 9.4.1.2 Yard Surface Maintenance 198 9.4.1.3 Paint 198 9.4.1.4 Landscaping 198 9.4.1.5 Storage 198 9.4.1.6 Noise 198 9.4.1.7 Safety and Security 198 9.4.2 Fire Protection 198 9.4.3 Hazardous Material 198 9.5 Defining Terms (IEEE, 1998) 199 References 199 10 Animal Deterrents/ Security 200 10.1 Animal Types 201 10.1.1 Clearance Requirements 201 10.1.2 Squirrels 201 10.1.3 Birds 202 10.1.4 Snakes 202 10.1.5 Raccoons 202 10.2 Mitigation Methods 203 10.2.1 Barriers 203 10.2.2 Deterrents 203 10.2.3 Insulation 203 10.2.4 Isolation Devices 204 11 Substation Grounding 206 11.1 Reasons for Substation Grounding System 206 11.2 Accidental Ground Circuit 207 11.2.1 Conditions 207 11.2.2 Permissible Body Current Limits 210 11.2.3 Importance of High-Speed Fault Clearing 211 11.2.4 Tolerable Voltages 212 11.3 Design Criteria 214 11.3.1 Actual Touch and Step Voltages 214 11.3.1.1 Mesh Voltage (Em) 214 11.3.1.2 Step Voltage (Es) 217 11.3.1.2.1 Geometrical Factor Ks 218 11.3.1.3 Evaluation of the Actual Touch- and Step-Voltage Equations 219 11.3.2 Soil Resistivity 219 11.3.3 Grid Resistance 220 11.3.3.1 Resistance 220 11.3.4 Grid Current 222 11.3.4.1 Current Division Consideration 223 11.3.5 Use of the Design Equations 224 11.3.6 Selection of Conductors 224 11.3.6.1 Materials 224 11.3.6.2 Conductor Sizing Factors 225 11.3.6.3 Symmetrical Currents 225 11.3.6.4 Asymmetrical Currents: Decrement Factor 226 11.3.7 Selection of Connections 226 11.3.8 Grounding of Substation Fence 227 11.3.9 Other Design Considerations 227 References 227 12 Direct Lightning Stroke Shielding of Substations 230 12.1 Lightning Stroke Protection 230 12.1.1 The Design Problem 231 12.2 Lightning Parameters 231 12.2.1 Strike Distance 231 12.2.2 Stroke Current Magnitude 232 12.2.3 Keraunic Level 233 12.2.4 Ground Flash Density 234 12.2.5 Lightning Detection Networks 234 12.3 Empirical Design Methods 234 12.3.1 Fixed Angles 234 12.3.2 Empirical Curves 235 12.3.2.1 Areas Protected by Lightning Masts 235 12.4 The Electrogeometric Model (EGM) 236 12.4.1 Whitehead’s EGM 238 12.4.2 Recent Improvements in the EGM 238 12.4.3 Criticism of the EGM 238 12.4.4 A Revised EGM 238 12.4.4.1 Description of the Revised EGM 239 12.4.4.2 Allowable Stroke Current 239 12.4.4.3 Withstand Voltage of Insulator Strings 240 12.4.5 Application of the EGM by the Rolling Sphere Method 240 12.4.5.1 Protection Against Stroke Current Is 241 12.4.5.2 Protection against Stroke Currents Greater than Is 242 12.4.5.3 Protection against Stroke Currents Less than Is 242 12.4.6 Multiple Shielding Electrodes 244 12.4.7 Changes in Voltage Level 245 12.4.8 Minimum Stroke Current 246 12.4.9 Application of Revised EGM by Mousa and Srivastava Method 246 12.5 Calculation of Failure Probability 248 12.6 Active Lightning Terminals 248 References 248 13 Seismic Considerations 252 13.1 Earthquakes and Substations 252 13.2 Seismic Design Standards for Substations 255 13.2.1 Importance of Standards 255 13.2.2 IEEE 693 and Complementary Standards 256 13.3 Seismic Design Process 257 13.4 Seismic Qualification 258 13.4.1 Qualification Levels and Design Earthquake 258 13.4.2 Selection of Qualification Level 259 13.4.3 Methods of Qualification 261 13.4.4 Equipment Supports 263 13.4.5 Performance Level and Projected Performance Level 264 13.5 Installation 265 References 266 14 Substation Fire Protection 268 14.1 Fire Protection Objectives 269 14.1.1 Electrical Supply Reliability 269 14.1.2 Operational Safety 269 14.1.2.1 Direct Public Impacts 269 14.1.2.2 Indirect Fire-Related Impacts 269 14.1.2.3 Emergency Response Services 270 14.1.2.4 Employee Safety 270 14.1.3 Revenue and Asset Preservation 270 14.1.4 Compliance 270 14.1.5 Risk Management 271 14.2 Fire Protection Philosophies 271 14.2.1 Fire Prevention/Safety by Design 271 14.2.2 Automatic Fire Protection 271 14.2.3 Manual Fire Suppression 272 14.2.4 Fire Recovery 272 14.2.5 Incident Management and Preparedness 272 14.3 Fire Hazards 273 14.3.1 Control of Fuels 273 14.3.2 Control of Ignition Sources 273 14.3.3 Substation Hazards 274 14.3.4 Specific Substation Building Hazards 274 14.3.5 Switchyard Hazards 275 14.4 Fire Mitigation Measures 276 14.4.1 Substation Site–Related Fire Protection 276 14.4.2 Substation Building Fire Protection Measures 277 14.4.2.1 Fire Safety 277 14.4.2.1.1 Fire Alarm System 277 14.4.3 Exit Facilities 278 14.4.4 Passive Measures 279 14.4.5 Active Fire Protection Measures 279 14.4.6 Manual Measures 280 14.4.7 Substation Switchyard Mitigation Measures 280 14.4.7.1 Passive Measures 280 14.4.7.1.1 Spatial Separation 280 14.4.7.1.2 Ground Cover 282 14.4.7.1.3 Fire Spill Containment 282 14.4.7.1.4 Fire Barriers 282 14.4.7.1.5 Cable Systems 283 14.4.7.2 Active Systems 283 14.4.7.2.1 Automatic Fire Protection Systems 283 14.4.7.2.2 Explosion Suppression 284 14.4.7.3 Manual Systems 284 14.4.7.3.1 Fire Extinguishers 284 14.4.7.3.2 Water Supplies 284 14.4.8 Fire Protection Selection Criterion 285 14.4.9 Economic Risk Analysis Example 285 14.4.9.1 Example Conclusion 286 14.5 Fire Incident Management and Preparedness 286 14.5.1 Fire Safety Plan 286 14.5.2 Operations Plan 287 14.5.3 Fire Training 288 14.5.4 Environmental Preparedness 288 14.5.5 Fire Recovery 288 14.6 Conclusion 289 14.A Appendix A: Control Building Fire Protection Assessment Checklist 289 14.A.1 Risk Assessment 289 14.A.2 Life Safety Assessment 289 14.A.3 Fire Protection Assessment 289 14.A.4 Hazard Assessment 290 14.B Appendix B: Switchyard Fire Protection Assessment Checklist 290 14.B.1 Risk Assessment 290 14.B.2 Radiant Exposure Assessment 290 14.B.3 Fire Spread Assessment 291 References 291 15 Substation Communications 294 15.1 Introduction 295 15.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition: Historical Perspective 295 15.3 SCADA Functional Requirements 297 15.4 SCADA Communication Requirements 298 15.5 Relay Communication Requirements 298 15.5.1 Communications and the Smart Grid 299 15.5.2 Time Distribution 300 15.5.3 Phasor Measurements 300 15.5.4 Quality of Service 300 15.6 Components of a SCADA System 301 15.7 Structure of a SCADA Communication Protocol 302 15.8 SCADA Communication Protocols: Past, Present, and Future 304 15.8.1 Distributed Network Protocol 306 15.8.2 IEC 60870-5 306 15.8.3 UCA 1.0 306 15.8.4 ICCP 307 15.8.5 UCA 2.0 307 15.8.6 IEC 61850 307 15.8.7 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol 307 15.8.8 Continuing Work 307 15.9 Security for Substation Communications 308 15.9.1 SCADA Security Attacks 308 15.9.2 Security by Obscurity 309 15.9.3 SCADA Message Data Integrity Checking 309 15.9.4 Encryption 309 15.9.5 Denial of Service 310 15.10 Electromagnetic Environment 310 15.11 Communication Media 311 15.11.1 Advanced Radio Data Information Service 311 15.11.2 Cellular Telephone Data Services 312 15.11.3 Digital Microwave 312 15.11.4 Fiber Optics 313 15.11.5 Hybrid Fiber/Coax 313 15.11.6 Multiple Address Radio 314 15.11.7 Mobile Computing Infrastructure 314 15.11.8 Mobile Radio 314 15.11.9 Mobitex Packet Radio 314 15.11.10 Paging Systems 315 15.11.11 Power Line Carrier 315 15.11.12 Satellite Systems 316 15.11.13 Short Message System 316 15.11.14 Spread Spectrum Radio and Wireless LANs 317 15.12 Telephone-Based Systems 317 15.12.1 Telephone Lines: Leased and Dial-Up 317 15.12.2 Integrated Services Digital Network 318 15.12.3 Digital Subscriber Loop 318 15.12.4 T1 and Fractional T1 319 15.12.5 Frame Relay 319 15.12.6 Asynchronous Transfer Mode 320 15.12.7 SONET 320 15.12.8 Multiprotocol Label Switching 320 15.13 For More Information 321 15.13.1 Useful Websites 321 15.13.2 Power System Relay Communication References 321 15.13.3 Relevant Standards 322 15.13.3.1 IEEE 802.x Networking Standards 322 15.13.3.2 IEEE Electromagnetic Interference Standards 322 15.13.3.3 IEC 60870 Standards for Telecommunication 322 15.13.3.4 DNP3 Specifications for Device Communication 323 15.13.3.5 IEC 60870-6 TASE.2 (UCA/ICCP) Control System Communications 323 15.13.3.6 IEC 61850/UCA Standards for Substation Systems 324 15.13.3.7 IEC 61968 Standards for Distribution Application Integration 325 15.13.3.8 IEC 61970 Standards for Energy Management System Integration 326 15.13.3.9 Other IEC Standards 327 15.13.3.10 ISO Reference Models (Available from www.iso.ch) 327 16 Physical Security of Substations 328 16.1 Introduction 328 16.1.1 Definitions 329 16.2 Electric System Today 330 16.2.1 Size 330 16.2.2 As an Essential Service 330 16.2.3 Structure 331 16.2.4 Need for Security 331 16.2.4.1 IEEE Standard 1402-2000, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Substation Physical and Electronic Security 331 16.3 Threat Assessment 332 16.3.1 Presence, Capability, and Intent 332 16.3.2 Intruders 333 16.3.2.1 General Public 333 16.3.2.2 Thieves 333 16.3.2.3 Vandals 334 16.3.2.4 Disgruntled Employees 334 16.3.2.5 Terrorists 334 16.3.2.6 Resources 335 16.4 System Analysis 335 16.4.1 Criticality Assessment 335 16.4.2 Vulnerability Assessment 336 16.4.3 Risk Assessment 336 16.5 Risk Management 337 16.6 Responsibility for Security 338 16.6.1 Owner/Operator 338 16.6.2 Federal Government 338 16.6.2.1 Reportable Incidents 339 16.6.2.2 Reporting Procedures 339 16.6.3 NERC Security Guidelines 339 16.7 Implementation (Methods) 339 16.7.1 Physical Methods 340 16.7.1.1 Fences and Walls 340 16.7.1.2 Gates and Locks 341 16.7.1.3 Landscaping 341 16.7.1.4 Barriers 341 16.7.1.5 Grounding and Ground Mats 341 16.7.1.6 Lighting 342 16.7.1.7 Control Building Design 342 16.7.1.8 Security Patrols 342 16.7.1.9 Signs 342 16.7.1.10 Clear Areas and Safety Zones 342 16.7.1.11 Site Maintenance 343 16.7.1.12 Intrusion Detection Systems 343 16.7.1.13 Video Motion Detection Systems 344 16.7.1.14 Substation Service 344 16.7.1.15 Personnel Access 344 16.7.1.16 Drawings and Information Books 344 16.7.1.17 SCADA/Communication Equipment 344 16.7.1.18 Relay and Control Equipment 345 16.7.2 System Methods 345 16.7.3 Contractual Methods 346 16.7.4 Management/Organizational Methods 346 References 347 17 Cyber Security of Substation Control and Diagnostic Systems 348 17.1 Introduction 348 17.2 Definitions and Terminology 351 17.3 Threats to the Security of Substation Systems 354 17.3.1 SA System Security Misconceptions 354 17.3.2 SA System Threat Actors 357 17.4 Substation Automation System Security Challenges 358 17.4.1 Slow Processors with Stringent Real-Time Constraints 358 17.4.2 Legacy Real-Time Operating Systems That Preclude Security 359 17.4.3 Insecure Communication Media 359 17.4.4 Open Protocols 359 17.4.5 Lack of Authentication 360 17.4.6 Organizational Issues 360 17.4.7 Lack of Centralized System Administration 361 17.4.8 Large Numbers of Remote Devices 361 17.4.9 Substation Diagnostic Systems 361 17.5 Measures to Enhance SA Cyber Security 361 17.5.1 Protecting Substation Systems against Cyber Intrusion 361 17.5.1.1 Cyber Intrusion from inside the Corporate Network 361 17.5.1.1.1 Password Policies 362 17.5.1.1.2 RBAC 363 17.5.1.1.3 AAA Server 363 17.5.1.1.4 Multifactor Authentications 363 17.5.1.2 Cyber Intrusion from outside the Corporate Network 363 17.5.1.2.1 SCADA Communication Lines 364 17.5.1.2.2 Dial-Up Lines to IEDs 365 17.5.2 Detecting Cyber Intrusion 368 17.5.3 Responding to Cyber Intrusion 370 17.6 Devising a Security Program 371 17.7 Future Measures 372 17.7.1 Authentication and Encryption 373 17.7.2 Secure Real-Time Operating Systems 373 17.7.3 Functional Cyber Security Testing and Certification 373 17.7.4 Test Beds 373 17.7.5 Incident Reporting Sites 373 17.7.6 Intrusion Prevention/Detection Systems and Firewalls 374 17.7.6.1 Secure Recovery 374 17.7.7 Developed and Emerging Technical Standards and Guidelines 374 References 375 18 Gas-Insulated Transmission Line 378 18.1 Introduction 378 18.2 History 379 18.3 System Design 381 18.3.1 Technical Data 381 18.3.2 Standard Units 381 18.3.3 Laying Methods 383 18.3.3.1 Directly Buried 383 18.3.3.2 Aboveground Installation 383 18.3.3.3 Tunnel Laid 385 18.3.3.4 Covered Trench 387 18.4 Development and Prototypes 387 18.4.1 Gas Mixture 388 18.4.2 Type Tests 389 18.4.2.1 Short-Circuit Withstand Tests 389 18.4.2.2 Internal-Arc Test 389 18.4.2.3 Dielectric Tests 390 18.4.3 Long-Duration Tests 390 18.4.3.1 Long-Duration Test on a Tunnel-Laid GIL 393 18.4.3.2 Long-Duration Test on a Directly Buried GIL 394 18.4.3.3 Results of the Long-Duration Testing 397 18.4.3.3.1 Thermal Aspects 397 18.4.3.3.2 Calculation Model 397 18.4.3.3.3 Comparison of Calculations and the Test Results 398 18.4.3.3.4 Mechanical Aspects 400 18.5 Advantages of GIL 401 18.5.1 Safety and Gas Handling 401 18.5.2 Magnetic Fields 402 18.5.2.1 General Remarks 402 18.5.2.2 Measurements of the Magnetic Field at PALEXPO, Geneva 402 18.6 Application of Second-Generation GIL 403 18.6.1 Tunnel-Laid GIL 403 18.6.2 Directly Buried GIL 406 18.7 Quality Control and Diagnostic Tools 407 18.8 Corrosion Protection 408 18.8.1 Passive Corrosion Protection 408 18.8.2 Active Corrosion Protection 410 18.9 Voltage Stress Coming from the Electric Power Net 410 18.9.1 Overvoltage Stresses 410 18.9.2 Maximum Stresses by Lightning Strokes 410 18.9.3 Modes of Operation 411 18.9.4 Application of External and Integrated Surge Arresters 411 18.9.5 Results of Calculations 411 18.9.6 Insulation Coordination 412 18.9.6.1 On-Site Tests 412 18.9.6.2 Type Tests (Design Tests) 412 18.10 Future Needs of High-Power Interconnections 412 18.10.1 Metropolitan Areas 412 18.10.2 Use of Traffic Tunnels 414 18.11 To Solve Bottlenecks in the Transmission Net 415 18.11.1 Introduction 415 18.11.2 Transmission Net Requirements 416 18.11.3 Technical Solutions 417 18.11.4 Integrating Renewable Energy 418 18.11.5 Cost of Transmission Losses 418 18.12 Conclusion 419 References 419 19 Substation Asset Management 422 19.1 Business-Driven Approach 423 19.1.1 Asset Management Framework 424 19.1.1.1 Business Driven 424 19.1.1.2 Multiple Objectives 424 19.1.1.3 Risk Management 425 19.1.2 Coordinated Cross-Functional Decision Making 426 19.2 Important Functional Elements of Asset Management 427 19.2.1 Portfolio Management of Projects and Resources 427 19.2.2 Evaluation of Projects Based on Multi-KPI Contributions 428 19.2.3 Prioritization Based on Total KPI Contribution 428 19.2.4 Probabilistic Risk Management 429 19.2.5 Managing an Aging Infrastructure to a Sustainable Point 431 19.2.5.1 Useful Management Concept 432 19.2.5.1.1 Value of a Master Lifetime Management Plan 433 19.2.5.1.2 Practical Issues of Lifetime Management 433 19.3 Asset Management in an Electric Utility 435 19.3.1 Shift from Standards-Driven to Business-Based Management 435 19.3.2 Pareto Curves and the Efficient Frontier 436 19.3.3 Use of Risk-Based Asset Management Methods 438 19.4 Asset Management Project and Process Example 440 19.4.1 Substation Example 440 19.4.2 Implementing Project Evaluation and Portfolio Selection 442 19.4.2.1 Constraints Are a Key to Practical Success 443 19.4.2.2 Conditional Approval in Risk-Based Planning 445 19.4.3 “Half-Measure” Approaches Fail to Deliver Good Results 446 19.4.4 Limiting “Must-Do” Projects 446 19.5 Changes in Philosophy and Approach 447 19.5.1 Asset Management Does Not Lower Standards 448 19.5.2 Asset Management Is Not Necessarily Trying to Reduce Spending 449 19.5.3 Changes in Perspective and Culture Specific to Substation Personnel 449 19.6 Substation Asset Management 449 19.6.1 Utilization and Life Cycle Management 450 19.6.2 Condition-Based Maintenance 452 19.6.3 “Big Bad Outages” and Setting Priorities for Substations 453 19.6.4 Advanced Substation Technology 454 19.6.5 Different Philosophy with Regard to Equipment Stewardship 454 19.6.5.1 Change in Perspective and Culture 454 19.6.5.2 Organization of All Capital Investment “Causes” into One Process 455 19.7 Summary 457 References 458 20 Station Commissioning and Project Closeout 460 20.1 Commissioning 460 20.1.1 Testing 460 20.1.2 Coordination 461 20.1.3 Site Issues 462 20.1.4 Notification 462 20.2 Project Closeout 463 20.2.1 Final Walk-Through or Inspection 463 20.2.1.1 Owners or Customers 463 20.2.1.2 Contractors 463 20.2.1.3 Vendors 463 20.2.2 Punch List 463 20.2.2.1 Development and Ownership Establishment of Specific Items 463 20.2.2.2 Ensure That Each Item Is Properly Completed 464 20.2.3 “As-Built” Information 464 20.2.3.1 Construction Drawings 464 20.2.3.2 Equipment Manuals and Operations Instructions 465 20.2.4 Invoices 465 20.2.4.1 Resolve Outstanding Issues or Conflicts 465 20.2.4.2 Complete All Payments 466 20.2.4.3 Submit Invoices for Reimbursable Items or Services 466 20.2.5 Closure of Outstanding Permits, Sureties, or Bonds 467 20.2.5.1 Permits or Sureties Required 467 20.2.5.2 Permit Closure Process or Final Governing Agency Inspections 467 20.2.6 Archive Records 468 20.2.7 Develop Unit Costs 468 20.2.8 Closeout Project Accounting 469 20.2.8.1 Cancel Charge Numbers 469 20.2.8.2 Verify Invoices Have Been Paid 469 20.2.9 Notify Stakeholders 469 20.2.9.1 Project Completed 469 20.2.9.2 Charge Numbers No Longer Valid 470 20.2.10 Development of Lessons Learned 470 21 Energy Storage 472 21.1 Why Storage? 472 21.2 Wholesale Energy Applications 474 21.3 Transmission and Distribution Applications 475 21.4 Voltage Support 475 21.5 Transmission Time/Load Shifting 475 21.6 Stability-Related Applications 476 21.7 Transmission/ Distribution Deferral 477 21.8 Radial System Reliability Improvement 478 21.9 Community Energy Storage 478 21.10 Transmission and Distribution Capital Deferral 480 21.11 Storage and Distributed Solar 481 21.12 Why Solar-Storage Applications? 481 21.13 Financial Impacts of Benefits 482 21.14 Energy Storage Technologies 482 21.15 Lead-Acid Batteries 483 21.16 Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries 483 21.17 Lithium-Ion Batteries 485 21.18 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries 485 21.19 Zinc-Bromine Batteries 486 21.20 Vanadium Redox Batteries 487 21.21 Flywheels 489 21.22 Technologies in Development 490 21.23 Comparing Technologies 491 22 Role of Substations in Smart Grids 494 22.1 What Is Smart Grid, Why Now? 494 22.1.1 Smart Grid or Smarter Grid? 494 22.1.2 Smart Grid Drivers 496 22.1.3 Benefits, More Than a Business Case 497 22.1.4 Technology Framework 499 22.2 Transformation of the Grid 500 22.2.1 Engineering and Design 501 22.2.2 Information Infrastructure 502 22.2.3 Operation and Maintenance 502 22.2.4 Enterprise Integration 503 22.2.5 Testing and Commissioning 503 22.3 Substation Technology Advances 503 22.4 Platform for Smart Feeder Applications 507 22.5 IEC 61850 in Smart Substations 508 22.5.1 Paradigm Shift in Substation Design 508 22.5.2 Interoperability and IEC 61850 510 22.5.3 Impact of IEC 61850 in the Substation 515 22.5.4 Station Bus–Based Architecture 517 22.5.5 Station and Process Bus Architecture 519 22.5.6 Summary 521 22.6 Smart Grid, Where Do We Go from Here? 522 References 523 Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition......Page 4 Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 8 Editor......Page 10 Contributors......Page 12 1.1 Background......Page 14 1.3 Budgeting......Page 15 1.5 Traditional and Innovative Substation Design......Page 16 1.6 Site Selection and Acquisition......Page 17 1.7.1 Station Design......Page 18 References......Page 21 2.1 Sulfur Hexafluoride......Page 22 2.2 Construction and Service Life......Page 24 2.2.2 Current Transformers......Page 26 2.2.4 Disconnect Switches......Page 27 2.2.5 Ground Switches......Page 28 2.2.6 Interconnecting Bus......Page 29 2.2.8 Power Cable Connections......Page 30 2.2.9 Direct Transformer Connections......Page 31 2.2.10 Surge Arrester......Page 32 2.2.11 Control System......Page 34 2.2.13 Gas Compartments and Zones......Page 35 2.2.14 Electrical and Physical Arrangement......Page 36 2.2.15 Grounding......Page 37 2.2.18 Operation and Interlocks......Page 38 References.......Page 39 3.2 Single Bus Arrangement......Page 42 3.3 Double Bus–Double Breaker Arrangement......Page 43 3.4 Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement......Page 44 3.5 Double Bus–Single Breaker Arrangement......Page 45 3.7 Breaker-and-a-Half Arrangement......Page 46 3.8 Comparison of Configurations......Page 48 4.2 Ambient Conditions......Page 50 4.3 Disconnect Switches......Page 51 4.4 Load Break Switches......Page 62 4.6 Power Fuses......Page 66 4.7 Circuit Switchers......Page 68 4.8 Circuit Breakers......Page 71 5.1 Introduction......Page 76 5.2 HVDC Converters......Page 77 5.3 FACTS Controllers......Page 93 5.4 Converter Technologies: For Smart Power and Grid Access......Page 98 5.5 Control and Protection System......Page 103 5.6 Losses and Cooling......Page 106 5.8 Reliability and Availability......Page 107 5.9 Outlook and Future Trends......Page 108 References......Page 112 6.1.1 Components of a Substation Automation System......Page 118 6.1.2 Locating Interfaces......Page 119 6.1.4 Electrical Environment......Page 121 6.2.1 What Measurements Are Needed......Page 122 6.2.2 Performance Requirements......Page 123 6.2.3 Characteristics of Digitized Measurements......Page 125 6.2.4.1 Current Transformers......Page 128 6.2.5 New Measuring Technology......Page 130 6.2.7.1 Transducers......Page 131 6.2.8 Scaling Measured Values......Page 132 6.2.9 Integrated Energy Measurements: Pulse Accumulators......Page 133 6.3.2 Ambiguity......Page 134 6.3.3 Wetting Sources......Page 135 6.4.1 Interposing Relays......Page 136 6.4.2 Control Circuit Designs......Page 137 6.4.4 Intelligent Electronic Devices for Control......Page 138 6.5.2 Point-to-Multipoint Networks......Page 139 6.5.4 Optical Fiber Systems......Page 140 6.5.4.1 Fiber Loops......Page 141 6.5.5 Communications between Facilities......Page 142 6.6 Testing Automation Systems......Page 143 6.6.1.3 Measurements......Page 144 6.6.3 In-Service Testing......Page 145 References......Page 146 7.1 Introduction......Page 148 7.3.2 Nonoperational Data......Page 149 7.4 Data Flow......Page 150 7.5 Asset Management......Page 151 7.7 System Integration Technical Issues......Page 152 7.7.2 Understanding System Architecture: Documentation......Page 153 7.7.4.1 RS-232/EIA-232......Page 154 7.7.4.4 Fiber Optics......Page 155 7.7.5.5 Hybrid Topologies......Page 156 7.8.1 Remote Terminal Unit......Page 157 7.8.4 Protocol Convertors......Page 158 7.8.8 Human Machine Interface......Page 159 7.8.9 Ethernet Switches......Page 160 7.10 Automation Applications......Page 161 7.11.3 Session (Layer 5)......Page 162 7.12.1 DNP 3.0......Page 163 7.12.4 Modbus......Page 164 7.12.5.2 GOOSE......Page 165 7.13 Synchrophasors......Page 166 7.13.3 Phasor Data Concentrator......Page 167 Bibliography......Page 168 8 Oil Containment......Page 170 8.1.4 Oil-Handling Equipment......Page 171 8.1.7 Spill Risk Assessment......Page 172 8.2 Containment Selection Consideration......Page 173 8.3.1.2 Substation Ditching......Page 174 8.3.1.4 Oil-Containment Equipment Pits......Page 175 8.3.1.6 Volume Requirements......Page 176 8.3.1.7 Typical Equipment Containment Solutions......Page 177 8.3.2 Discharge Control Systems......Page 179 8.3.2.1 Oil–Water Separator Systems......Page 180 8.3.2.2 Flow Blocking Systems......Page 181 8.4 Warning Alarms and Monitoring......Page 183 References......Page 184 9.1 Community Acceptance......Page 186 9.2.1.1 Wetlands......Page 187 9.2.2.1 Visual Simulation......Page 188 9.2.2.3 Color......Page 189 9.2.2.6 Enclosures......Page 190 9.2.2.8 Noise Sources......Page 191 9.2.2.10 Governmental Regulations......Page 192 9.2.2.11 Noise Abatement Methods......Page 193 9.2.3.2 Electric Fields......Page 194 9.2.4.2 Lighting......Page 195 9.3.1.2 Site Access Roads......Page 196 9.4.1.1 Water and Sediment Control......Page 197 9.4.3 Hazardous Material......Page 198 References......Page 199 10 Animal Deterrents/ Security......Page 200 10.1.2 Squirrels......Page 201 10.1.5 Raccoons......Page 202 10.2.3 Insulation......Page 203 10.2.4 Isolation Devices......Page 204 11.1 Reasons for Substation Grounding System......Page 206 11.2.1 Conditions......Page 207 11.2.2 Permissible Body Current Limits......Page 210 11.2.3 Importance of High-Speed Fault Clearing......Page 211 11.2.4 Tolerable Voltages......Page 212 11.3.1.1 Mesh Voltage (Em)......Page 214 11.3.1.2 Step Voltage (Es)......Page 217 11.3.1.2.1 Geometrical Factor Ks......Page 218 11.3.2 Soil Resistivity......Page 219 11.3.3.1 Resistance......Page 220 11.3.4 Grid Current......Page 222 11.3.4.1 Current Division Consideration......Page 223 11.3.6.1 Materials......Page 224 11.3.6.3 Symmetrical Currents......Page 225 11.3.7 Selection of Connections......Page 226 References......Page 227 12.1 Lightning Stroke Protection......Page 230 12.2.1 Strike Distance......Page 231 12.2.2 Stroke Current Magnitude......Page 232 12.2.3 Keraunic Level......Page 233 12.3.1 Fixed Angles......Page 234 12.3.2.1 Areas Protected by Lightning Masts......Page 235 12.4 The Electrogeometric Model (EGM)......Page 236 12.4.4 A Revised EGM......Page 238 12.4.4.2 Allowable Stroke Current......Page 239 12.4.5 Application of the EGM by the Rolling Sphere Method......Page 240 12.4.5.1 Protection Against Stroke Current Is......Page 241 12.4.5.3 Protection against Stroke Currents Less than Is......Page 242 12.4.6 Multiple Shielding Electrodes......Page 244 12.4.7 Changes in Voltage Level......Page 245 12.4.9 Application of Revised EGM by Mousa and Srivastava Method......Page 246 References......Page 248 13.1 Earthquakes and Substations......Page 252 13.2.1 Importance of Standards......Page 255 13.2.2 IEEE 693 and Complementary Standards......Page 256 13.3 Seismic Design Process......Page 257 13.4.1 Qualification Levels and Design Earthquake......Page 258 13.4.2 Selection of Qualification Level......Page 259 13.4.3 Methods of Qualification......Page 261 13.4.4 Equipment Supports......Page 263 13.4.5 Performance Level and Projected Performance Level......Page 264 13.5 Installation......Page 265 References......Page 266 14 Substation Fire Protection......Page 268 14.1.2.2 Indirect Fire-Related Impacts......Page 269 14.1.4 Compliance......Page 270 14.2.2 Automatic Fire Protection......Page 271 14.2.5 Incident Management and Preparedness......Page 272 14.3.2 Control of Ignition Sources......Page 273 14.3.4 Specific Substation Building Hazards......Page 274 14.3.5 Switchyard Hazards......Page 275 14.4.1 Substation Site–Related Fire Protection......Page 276 14.4.2.1.1 Fire Alarm System......Page 277 14.4.3 Exit Facilities......Page 278 14.4.5 Active Fire Protection Measures......Page 279 14.4.7.1.1 Spatial Separation......Page 280 14.4.7.1.4 Fire Barriers......Page 282 14.4.7.2.1 Automatic Fire Protection Systems......Page 283 14.4.7.3.2 Water Supplies......Page 284 14.4.9 Economic Risk Analysis Example......Page 285 14.5.1 Fire Safety Plan......Page 286 14.5.2 Operations Plan......Page 287 14.5.5 Fire Recovery......Page 288 14.A.3 Fire Protection Assessment......Page 289 14.B.2 Radiant Exposure Assessment......Page 290 References......Page 291 15 Substation Communications......Page 294 15.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition: Historical Perspective......Page 295 15.3 SCADA Functional Requirements......Page 297 15.5 Relay Communication Requirements......Page 298 15.5.1 Communications and the Smart Grid......Page 299 15.5.4 Quality of Service......Page 300 15.6 Components of a SCADA System......Page 301 15.7 Structure of a SCADA Communication Protocol......Page 302 15.8 SCADA Communication Protocols: Past, Present, and Future......Page 304 15.8.3 UCA 1.0......Page 306 15.8.8 Continuing Work......Page 307 15.9.1 SCADA Security Attacks......Page 308 15.9.4 Encryption......Page 309 15.10 Electromagnetic Environment......Page 310 15.11.1 Advanced Radio Data Information Service......Page 311 15.11.3 Digital Microwave......Page 312 15.11.5 Hybrid Fiber/Coax......Page 313 15.11.9 Mobitex Packet Radio......Page 314 15.11.11 Power Line Carrier......Page 315 15.11.13 Short Message System......Page 316 15.12.1 Telephone Lines: Leased and Dial-Up......Page 317 15.12.3 Digital Subscriber Loop......Page 318 15.12.5 Frame Relay......Page 319 15.12.8 Multiprotocol Label Switching......Page 320 15.13.2 Power System Relay Communication References......Page 321 15.13.3.3 IEC 60870 Standards for Telecommunication......Page 322 15.13.3.5 IEC 60870-6 TASE.2 (UCA/ICCP) Control System Communications......Page 323 15.13.3.6 IEC 61850/UCA Standards for Substation Systems......Page 324 15.13.3.7 IEC 61968 Standards for Distribution Application Integration......Page 325 15.13.3.8 IEC 61970 Standards for Energy Management System Integration......Page 326 15.13.3.10 ISO Reference Models (Available from www.iso.ch)......Page 327 16.1 Introduction......Page 328 16.1.1 Definitions......Page 329 16.2.2 As an Essential Service......Page 330 16.2.4.1 IEEE Standard 1402-2000, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Substation Physical and Electronic Security......Page 331 16.3.1 Presence, Capability, and Intent......Page 332 16.3.2.2 Thieves......Page 333 16.3.2.5 Terrorists......Page 334 16.4.1 Criticality Assessment......Page 335 16.4.3 Risk Assessment......Page 336 16.5 Risk Management......Page 337 16.6.2 Federal Government......Page 338 16.7 Implementation (Methods)......Page 339 16.7.1.1 Fences and Walls......Page 340 16.7.1.5 Grounding and Ground Mats......Page 341 16.7.1.10 Clear Areas and Safety Zones......Page 342 16.7.1.12 Intrusion Detection Systems......Page 343 16.7.1.17 SCADA/Communication Equipment......Page 344 16.7.2 System Methods......Page 345 16.7.4 Management/Organizational Methods......Page 346 References......Page 347 17.1 Introduction......Page 348 17.2 Definitions and Terminology......Page 351 17.3.1 SA System Security Misconceptions......Page 354 17.3.2 SA System Threat Actors......Page 357 17.4.1 Slow Processors with Stringent Real-Time Constraints......Page 358 17.4.4 Open Protocols......Page 359 17.4.6 Organizational Issues......Page 360 17.5.1.1 Cyber Intrusion from inside the Corporate Network......Page 361 17.5.1.1.1 Password Policies......Page 362 17.5.1.2 Cyber Intrusion from outside the Corporate Network......Page 363 17.5.1.2.1 SCADA Communication Lines......Page 364 17.5.1.2.2 Dial-Up Lines to IEDs......Page 365 17.5.2 Detecting Cyber Intrusion......Page 368 17.5.3 Responding to Cyber Intrusion......Page 370 17.6 Devising a Security Program......Page 371 17.7 Future Measures......Page 372 17.7.5 Incident Reporting Sites......Page 373 17.7.7 Developed and Emerging Technical Standards and Guidelines......Page 374 References......Page 375 18.1 Introduction......Page 378 18.2 History......Page 379 18.3.2 Standard Units......Page 381 18.3.3.2 Aboveground Installation......Page 383 18.3.3.3 Tunnel Laid......Page 385 18.4 Development and Prototypes......Page 387 18.4.1 Gas Mixture......Page 388 18.4.2.2 Internal-Arc Test......Page 389 18.4.3 Long-Duration Tests......Page 390 18.4.3.1 Long-Duration Test on a Tunnel-Laid GIL......Page 393 18.4.3.2 Long-Duration Test on a Directly Buried GIL......Page 394 18.4.3.3.2 Calculation Model......Page 397 18.4.3.3.3 Comparison of Calculations and the Test Results......Page 398 18.4.3.3.4 Mechanical Aspects......Page 400 18.5.1 Safety and Gas Handling......Page 401 18.5.2.2 Measurements of the Magnetic Field at PALEXPO, Geneva......Page 402 18.6.1 Tunnel-Laid GIL......Page 403 18.6.2 Directly Buried GIL......Page 406 18.7 Quality Control and Diagnostic Tools......Page 407 18.8.1 Passive Corrosion Protection......Page 408 18.9.2 Maximum Stresses by Lightning Strokes......Page 410 18.9.5 Results of Calculations......Page 411 18.10.1 Metropolitan Areas......Page 412 18.10.2 Use of Traffic Tunnels......Page 414 18.11.1 Introduction......Page 415 18.11.2 Transmission Net Requirements......Page 416 18.11.3 Technical Solutions......Page 417 18.11.5 Cost of Transmission Losses......Page 418 References......Page 419 19 Substation Asset Management......Page 422 19.1 Business-Driven Approach......Page 423 19.1.1.2 Multiple Objectives......Page 424 19.1.1.3 Risk Management......Page 425 19.1.2 Coordinated Cross-Functional Decision Making......Page 426 19.2.1 Portfolio Management of Projects and Resources......Page 427 19.2.3 Prioritization Based on Total KPI Contribution......Page 428 19.2.4 Probabilistic Risk Management......Page 429 19.2.5 Managing an Aging Infrastructure to a Sustainable Point......Page 431 19.2.5.1 Useful Management Concept......Page 432 19.2.5.1.2 Practical Issues of Lifetime Management......Page 433 19.3.1 Shift from Standards-Driven to Business-Based Management......Page 435 19.3.2 Pareto Curves and the Efficient Frontier......Page 436 19.3.3 Use of Risk-Based Asset Management Methods......Page 438 19.4.1 Substation Example......Page 440 19.4.2 Implementing Project Evaluation and Portfolio Selection......Page 442 19.4.2.1 Constraints Are a Key to Practical Success......Page 443 19.4.2.2 Conditional Approval in Risk-Based Planning......Page 445 19.4.4 Limiting “Must-Do” Projects......Page 446 19.5 Changes in Philosophy and Approach......Page 447 19.5.1 Asset Management Does Not Lower Standards......Page 448 19.6 Substation Asset Management......Page 449 19.6.1 Utilization and Life Cycle Management......Page 450 19.6.2 Condition-Based Maintenance......Page 452 19.6.3 “Big Bad Outages” and Setting Priorities for Substations......Page 453 19.6.5.1 Change in Perspective and Culture......Page 454 19.6.5.2 Organization of All Capital Investment “Causes” into One Process......Page 455 19.7 Summary......Page 457 References......Page 458 20.1.1 Testing......Page 460 20.1.2 Coordination......Page 461 20.1.4 Notification......Page 462 20.2.2.1 Development and Ownership Establishment of Specific Items......Page 463 20.2.3.1 Construction Drawings......Page 464 20.2.4.1 Resolve Outstanding Issues or Conflicts......Page 465 20.2.4.3 Submit Invoices for Reimbursable Items or Services......Page 466 20.2.5.2 Permit Closure Process or Final Governing Agency Inspections......Page 467 20.2.7 Develop Unit Costs......Page 468 20.2.9.1 Project Completed......Page 469 20.2.10 Development of Lessons Learned......Page 470 21.1 Why Storage?......Page 472 21.2 Wholesale Energy Applications......Page 474 21.5 Transmission Time/Load Shifting......Page 475 21.6 Stability-Related Applications......Page 476 21.7 Transmission/ Distribution Deferral......Page 477 21.9 Community Energy Storage......Page 478 21.10 Transmission and Distribution Capital Deferral......Page 480 21.12 Why Solar-Storage Applications?......Page 481 21.14 Energy Storage Technologies......Page 482 21.16 Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries......Page 483 21.18 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries......Page 485 21.19 Zinc-Bromine Batteries......Page 486 21.20 Vanadium Redox Batteries......Page 487 21.21 Flywheels......Page 489 21.22 Technologies in Development......Page 490 21.23 Comparing Technologies......Page 491 22.1.1 Smart Grid or Smarter Grid?......Page 494 22.1.2 Smart Grid Drivers......Page 496 22.1.3 Benefits, More Than a Business Case......Page 497 22.1.4 Technology Framework......Page 499 22.2 Transformation of the Grid......Page 500 22.2.1 Engineering and Design......Page 501 22.2.3 Operation and Maintenance......Page 502 22.3 Substation Technology Advances......Page 503 22.4 Platform for Smart Feeder Applications......Page 507 22.5.1 Paradigm Shift in Substation Design......Page 508 22.5.2 Interoperability and IEC 61850......Page 510 22.5.3 Impact of IEC 61850 in the Substation......Page 515 22.5.4 Station Bus–Based Architecture......Page 517 22.5.5 Station and Process Bus Architecture......Page 519 22.5.6 Summary......Page 521 22.6 Smart Grid, Where Do We Go from Here?......Page 522 References......Page 523 The use of electric power substations in generation, transmission, and distribution remains one of the most challenging and exciting areas of electric power engineering. Recent technological developments have had a tremendous impact on all aspects of substation design and operation. With 80% of its chapters completely revised and two brand-new chapters on energy storage and Smart Grids, Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition provides an extensive updated overview of substations, serving as a reference and guide for both industry and academia. Contributors have written each chapter with detailed design information for electric power engineering professionals and other engineering professionals (e.g., mechanical, civil) who want an overview or specific information on this challenging and important area.This book: Emphasizes the practical application of the technology Includes extensive use of graphics and photographs to visually convey the book's concepts Provides applicable IEEE industry standards in each chapter Is written by industry experts who have an average of 25 to 30 years of industry experience Presents a new chapter addressing the key role of the substation in Smart Grids Editor John McDonald and this very impressive group of contributors cover all aspects of substations, from the initial concept through design, automation, and operation. The book's chapters—which delve into physical and cyber-security, commissioning, and energy storage—are written as tutorials and provide references for further reading and study.As with the other volumes in the Electric Power Engineering Handbook series, this book supplies a high level of detail and, more importantly, a tutorial style of writing and use of photographs and graphics to help the reader understand the material. Several chapter authors are members of the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Substations Committee and are the actual experts who are developing the standards that govern all aspects of substations. As a result, this book contains the most recent technological developments in industry practice and standards.Watch John D. McDonald talk about his bookA volume in the Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Third Edition.Other volumes in the set: K12642 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856284) K12648 Power Systems, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856338) K13917 Power System Stability and Control, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439883204) K12643 Electric Power Transformer Engineering, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856291) The use of electric power substations in generation, transmission, and distribution remains one of the most challenging and exciting areas of electric power engineering. Recent technological developments have had a tremendous impact on all aspects of substation design and operation. With 80% of its chapters completely revised and two brand-new chapters on energy storage and Smart Grids, Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition provides an extensive updated overview of substations, serving as a reference and guide for both industry and academia. Contributors have written each chapter with detailed design information for electric power engineering professionals and other engineering professionals (e.g., mechanical, civil) who want an overview or specific information on this challenging and important area. This book: Emphasizes the practical application of the technology Includes extensive use of graphics and photographs to visually convey the book’s concepts Provides applicable IEEE industry standards in each chapter Is written by industry experts who have an average of 25 to 30 years of industry experience Presents a new chapter addressing the key role of the substation in Smart Grids Editor John McDonald and this very impressive group of contributors cover all aspects of substations, from the initial concept through design, automation, and operation. The book’s chapters—which delve into physical and cyber-security, commissioning, and energy storage—are written as tutorials and provide references for further reading and study. As with the other volumes in the Electric Power Engineering Handbook series, this book supplies a high level of detail and, more importantly, a tutorial style of writing and use of photographs and graphics to help the reader understand the material. Several chapter authors are members of the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Substations Committee and are the actual experts who are developing the standards that govern all aspects of substations. As a result, this book contains the most recent technological developments in industry practice and standards. Watch John D. McDonald talk about his book "A Volume in the Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Third Edition" . Other volumes in the set: K12642 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856284) K12648 Power Systems, Third Edition (ISBN: 9781439856338) K13917.. "The electric power substation, whether generating station or transmission and distribution, remains one of the most challenging and exciting fields of electric power engineering. Recent technological developments have had tremendous impact on all aspects of substation design and operation. The objective of Electric Power Substations Engineering is to provide an extensive overview of substations, as well as a reference and guide for its study. The chapters are written for the electric power-engineering professional for detailed design information, as well as for other engineering professions (e.g., mechanical, civil) who want an overview or specific information in one particular area"-- Provided by publisher