Egyptian cultural identity in the architecture of Roman Egypt (30 BC - AD 325)

Egyptian Cultural Identity in the Architecture of Roman Egypt (30 BC–AD 325) considers the relationship between architectural form and different layers of identity assertion in Roman Egypt. The Roman province of Aegyptus was a peculiar province such that many scholars have generally assumed that it was given a special status in the Roman Empire. The text covers the period from the Roman conquest of Egypt under Octavian in 30 BC to the official recognition of Christianity in AD 325. It stresses the sophistication of the concept of identity, and the complex yet close association between architecture and identity. This monograph is the outcome of four years of research at the Department of Classics and Ancient History, the University of Durham. The book will be of interest and value for both Classicists and Egyptologists working on the archaeology of Egypt under Roman rule and the concept of identity. Egyptian Cultural Identity in the Architecture of Roman Egypt (30 BC–AD 325) considers the relationship between architectural form and different layers of identity assertion in Roman Egypt. The Roman province of Aegyptus was a peculiar province such that many scholars have generally assumed that it was given a special status in the Roman Empire. The text covers the period from the Roman conquest of Egypt under Octavian in 30 BC to the official recognition of Christianity in AD 325. It stresses the sophistication of the concept of identity, and the complex yet close association between architecture and identity. This monograph is the outcome of four years of research at the Department of Classics and Ancient History, the University of Durham. The book will be of interest and value for both Classicists and Egyptologists working on the archaeology of Egypt under Roman rule and the concept of identity. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents 5 Abbreviations 7 List of Illustrations 8 List of Maps, Plates, Charts and Tables 13 Acknowledgments 14 Introduction 15 Chapter I: City Layout, Urban Space, and Public Buildings 24 FIGURE 1. Plan of Alexandria with buildings mentioned in Strabo’s description (McKenzie 2007, 174, Figure 298). 25 FIGURE 2. Cleopatra’s Needles in 1785 (McKenzie 2007, 176, Figure 300). 27 FIGURE 3. The Temple of Isis at Taposiris Magna (author). 29 FIGURE 4. Egyptian architectural fragments and sculptures found near the Small Theatre at Kom el-Dikka (author). 29 FIGURE 5. Restored plan of the Serapeum in the Roman period (McKenzie 2003, 51, Figure 11). 30 FIGURE 6. The Apis bull dedicated by Hadrian to Serapis, Graeco-Roman Museum, Alexandria (McKenzie 2007, 185, Figure 312). 30 FIGURE 7. Egyptian sphinxes and other fragments at the Serapeum, Alexandria (author). 31 FIGURE 10. The Triumph Arch at Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 157, Figure 263a). 33 FIGURE 11. The main lengthwise and cross-street at Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 155, Figure 259). 33 FIGURE 12. Mud-brick remains of houses at Antinoopolis (author). 33 FIGURE 8. Plan of Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 155, Figure 260). 33 FIGURE 9. Remains of the north-south thoroughfare at Antinoopolis (author). 33 FIGURE 13 Tetrastylon of Alexander Severus at Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 156, Figure 262a). 34 FIGURE 14. Theatre Gate of Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 158, Figure 265). 34 FIGURE 15. Plan of the theatre of Antinoopolis in 1799 (McKenzie 2007, 158, Figure 266). 34 FIGURE 16. Plan of the Hippodrome at Antinoopolis (Humphrey 1986, 513, Figure 255). 35 FIGURE 17. The temple of Ramesses II at Antinoopolis (author). 36 FIGURE 18. Osiris-Antinous in his Egyptian form (Ashton 2004, 193). 37 FIGURE 19. Osiris-Antinous in his Greek form (Ashton 2004, 191). 37 FIGURE 20. The Oxyrhynchus Fish, in bronze, with a worshipper, Late Period, British Museum EA 61953 (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004, 159, Figure 6.2.3). 38 FIGURE 21. Hypothetical reconstruction of the topography of Oxyrhynchus: (1) Hippodrome, (6) Theatre, (7) a colonnaded street, (8) base of Phocas’ pillar, (10) eastern gate, (11) corner of a Doric peristyle (Padró 2007, 137, Figure 10.8). 38 FIGURE 22. Remains of a colonnaded street east of the theatre at Oxyrhynchus (McKenzie 2007, 162, Figure 277). 38 FIGURE 23. Phocas’ column at Oxyrhynchus (author). 39 FIGURE 24. Phocas’ column in 1798 (Parsons 2007, Figure 4). 39 FIGURE 25. The eastern gate under the minaret of Zain el-Abidin at Oxyrhynchus (Padró 2007, pl. xx). 39 FIGURE 26. Corner of a Doric peristyle at Oxyrhynchus (author). 40 FIGURE 27. Plan of the Roman theatre at Oxyrhynchus (Petrie 1925, pl. 38). 42 FIGURE 28. Composite pilaster capital from the east portico of the theatre at Oxyrhynchus (Bailey 2007, 86, Figure 6.12.a). 42 FIGURE 29. Columns and statuary from the stage of the theatre at Oxyrhynchus (McKenzie 2007, 162, Figure 280). 43 FIGURE 30. Frieze fragments around the top of the cavea from the theatre at Oxyrhynchus (McKenzie 2007, 162, Figure 279). 43 FIGURE 31. Plan of Hermopolis Magna and the scared enclosure of Thoth (McKenzie 2007, 159, Figure 269). 46 FIGURE 32. Portico of Philip Arrhidaeos at Hermopolis in 1799 (Wilkinson 2000, 139). 46 FIGURE 33. Three surviving column bases of the Portico of Philip Arrhidaeos at Hermopolis (Bailey, Davies and Spencer 1982, 23, pl. 3b). 47 FIGURE 34. Reconstructed frontal elevation of the Portico of Philip Arrhidaeos at Hermopolis (Kessler 2001, 95). 47 FIGURE 35. Plan of the basilica at Hermopolis (Parlasca 1960, 203, Figure 2). 47 FIGURE 36. Remains of the basilica at Hermopolis (author). 47 FIGURE 37. Remains of fallen columns and engaged piers from north front of the komasterion at Hermopolis (author). 48 FIGURE 38. Restored plan of the komasterion at Hermopolis (McKenzie 2007, 161, Figure 272). 48 FIGURE 39. Reconstruction of the komasterion at Hermopolis, looking south-east (McKenzie 2007, 160, Figure 271). 48 FIGURE 40. Red granite ridge-beam from the komasterion at Hermopolis (McKenzie 2007, 161, Figure 274). 49 FIGURE 41. Red granite ridge-beam found in 1984 at Hermopolis (Bailey 1986, 233, Figure 2). 49 FIGURE 42. The foundations of the komasterion: brick piers and barrel vaults (Bailey 1986, 234, Figure 4). 49 FIGURE 43. Western (left) and eastern (right) colossi of Ramesses II at the temple of Ramesses II/Nero at Hermopolis (author). 49 FIGURE 44. The ante-chamber and sanctuary at the temple of Ramesses II/Nero at Hermopolis (author). 49 FIGURE 45. Roman reliefs on the west wall of the ante-chamber at the temple of Ramesses II/Nero at Hermopolis (Bailey, Davies and Spencer 1982, 22, pl. 2a). 50 FIGURE 46. Domitian offering to Atum in Domitian’s temple at Hermopolis (Bailey, Davies and Spencer 1982, 23, pl. 3a). 50 FIGURE 47. Elevation of the north wall of Domitian’s temple at Hermopolis (Snape 1989, 2, Figure 1). 50 FIGURE 48. One of two colossal statues (4.5 m high) of Thoth at Hermopolis dating from Amenhotep III (Wilkinson 2000, 140). 51 FIGURE 49. Reconstruction of the centre of Hermopolis (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004, Figure 6.3.2). 52 FIGURE 50. Fountain houses on either side of the dromos of the temple of Hathor at Dendera (author). 52 FIGURE 51. Dedicatory inscription on a pedestal of a column of the Great Tetrastylon at Hermopolis (Letronne 1974, 438, Figure 2). 52 FIGURE 52. Plan of the four amphoda at Hermopolis (Spencer 1983a, pl. i). 53 FIGURE 53. A paved part of Antinoe Street at Hermopolis (Baraize 1940, pl. xciii). 53 FIGURE 54. Topography and temple complexes of the east bank in Roman Thebes (Vandorpe 1995, 217). 55 FIGURE 55. Devotional inscription on the east inner wall of the central gate of the pylon at the temple of Luxor (author). 57 FIGURE 56. Location and plan of the Serapeum at Luxor (Golvin et al. 1981, 116, Figure 1). 57 FIGURE 57. The Serapeum at Luxor (author). 57 FIGURE 58. The East Tetrastylon at the temple of Luxor (author). 58 FIGURE 59. The Imperial Chapel at the temple of Luxor, south wall with niche and Corinthian columns (author). 58 FIGURE 60. Topography and archaeological sites on the west bank of Thebes (Riggs 2005, 178, Figure 83). 58 FIGURE 61. The temples of Djeme (Medinet Habu) in the Roman period (Vandorpe 1995, 224). 59 FIGURE 62. The Augustan temple at Deir el-Shelwit (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004, 198, Figure 7.3.5). 60 Chapter II: Monumentality of the Pylon and Egyptian Cultural Identity 63 FIGURE 63. Front view of the pylon of the temple at Dakka (Hölbl 2004, 139, pl. 202). 64 FIGURE 64. The pylon-entrance to the Chapel of Monuthotep III at Qurna (Wilkinson 2000, 173). 67 FIGURE 65. The pylon depicted on the tomb of Amenhotep Sisi (Badawy 1948, 181, Figure 217). 68 FIGURE 66. The propylon of the Caesareum at Cyrene (Burkhalter 1992, 308, Figure 5). 70 FIGURE 67. The depiction of the universe on the ceiling of the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos (Allen 2003, Figure 2:1). 71 FIGURE 68. Representation of Nut on the ceiling of the New Year Chapel at the temple of Dendera (author). 73 FIGURE 69. Drawing of the above, indicating the sun rays radiating from the womb of Nut giving the power of life to the head of Hathor representing the temple of Dendera, which is placed at the middle of the horizon (De Cenival 1964, 86). 73 FIGURE 70. Pylon of the temple at Edfu with monumental reliefs of Ptolemy XII smiting his enemy (author). 73 FIGURE 71. Relief from the central gateway of the pylon at Kalabsha, detail showing Augustus presenting the image of Maat to Isis, Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin, no. 69 (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004, Figure 8.11.2). 74 FIGURE 72. The balcony of the first pylon of the temple of Isis at Philae (author). 76 FIGURE 73. Horus offers ‘millions of years, life, stability and dominion’ to the falcon on the pylon of the temple of Isis at Philae (Hölbl 2004, 55, pl. 68). 76 FIGURE 74. The depiction of a falcon on the pylon of the temple of Osiris at Canopus (Handler 1971, pl. 11.8). 77 FIGURE 75. Augustus offering to Thoth, Tefnut and Isis on the upper register on the east jamb of the central doorway of the pylon at Dakka (Roeder 1930, pl. 15. 80 FIGURE 76. The central doorway of the pylon at Dendur on its original site (Weigall 1910, pl. xxx). 80 FIGURE 77. Augustus offers incense and libation to Osiris-Onnophris followed by Isis and Harpocrates on the interior south wall of the pylon of the temple at Biggeh (Blackman 1915, pl. vii). 80 FIGURE 78. Antoninus Pius offers a Figure of Maat and a field-sign to Amun on the pylon of the temple at Qasr el-Zaiyan (Arnold 1999, 270, Figure 236). 81 FIGURE 79. Plan of the lower complex of ancient Praeneste. From right to left: curia, basilica and enclosed courtyard including grotto with fish mosaic (Meyboom 1995, Figure 2). 83 FIGURE 80. The traditional temple with a pylon depicted on the Palestrina mosaic (McKenzie 2007, 60, Figure 82). 83 FIGURE 81. The pylon of the temple of Isis at Alexandria on a coin of Trajan (Handler 1971, pl. 11. 4). 85 FIGURE 82. The same on a coin of Hadrian (McKenzie 2007, 39, Figure 39). 85 FIGURE 83. Bone token depicting the temple of Osiris at Canopus (McKenzie 2007, 186, Figure 314). 86 FIGURE 84. Pharaonic papyriform columns from Memphis reused in Roman Alexandria. Reconstruction in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (McKenzie 2007, 186, Figure 315). 87 Chapter IV: Tomb Iconography and Egyptian Cultural Identity 116 FIGURE 109. Shroud of a woman named Tasherytwedjahor, from Assiut, the first century, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 54.993 (Riggs 2002, 88, Figure 2). 117 FIGURE 110. Mummy portrait of a soldier, the early third century, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum E.3755 (Riggs 2002, 87, Figure 1). 117 FIGURE 111. The burial chamber of the Tomb of Sennedjem with illustration of Spell 110 of the Book of the Dead on the back wall, (TT 1), Nineteenth Dynasty, c. 1279 BC (Kampp-Seyfried 2004, 263, Figure 226). 118 FIGURE 112. Reconstruction drawing of the triclinium and funerary banquet at Kom el-Shouqafa (Venit 2002a, 128, Figure 106). 120 FIGURE 113. Plan of Habachi Tomb A (Habachi 1936, Figure 13). 122 FIGURE 114. The scene on the back wall of the sarcophagus niche of Habachi Tomb A (Habachi 1936, 275, Figure 4a). 123 FIGURE 115. The scene on the right side wall of the sarcophagus niche (Habachi 1936, 277, Figure 5a). 123 FIGURE 116. The scene on the front of the sarcophagus (Habachi 1936, 275, Figure 4:b). 124 FIGURE 117. The scene depicted on the central niche of the Sieglin Tomb (Adriani 1966, pl. 101, Figure 339). 124 FIGURE 118. Plan of the first and second (main tomb) levels of the catacomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (Adriani 1966, pl. 98, Figure 330). 125 FIGURE 119. The façades of the pronaos and naos in the main tomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (Shaw and Nicholson 1995, 24). 125 FIGURE 120. The scene depicted on the left niche of the main tomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (author). 126 FIGURE 121. The mummification of Osiris on the rear wall of the central niche of the main tomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (Adriani 1966, pl. 101, Figure 340). 127 FIGURE 122. The scenes depicted on the central wall of Persephone Tomb 1 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 2004, 139, Figure 7.3). 129 FIGURE 123. The scenes depicted on the central wall of Persephone Tomb 2 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 2004, 139, Figure 7.3). 129 FIGURE 124. The scenes depicted on the left-hand wall of Persephone Tomb 1 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 2004, 138, Figure 7.1). 129 FIGURE 125. The scenes depicted on the left-hand wall of Persephone Tomb 2 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 2004, 138, Figure 7.2). 129 FIGURE 126. The scenes depicted on the right-hand wall of Persephone Tomb 1 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 1997, 370, Figure 10). 130 FIGURE 127. The scenes depicted on the right-hand wall of Persephone Tomb 2 (Guimier-Sorbets and Seif el-Din 1997, 379, Figure 19). 130 FIGURE 128. Plan of Tomb No. 21 at Tuna el-Gebel (Riggs 2005, 130, Figure 55). 131 FIGURE 129. The scene of the Osirian reliquary in the same tomb (Gabra et al 1941, pl. x.1). 132 FIGURE 130. The purification scene on the west wall of the first decorated room in the same tomb (Grimm 1974, pl. 132: 2). 132 FIGURE 131. Hathor leads the deceased to Osiris on the east wall of the first decorated room in the same tomb (Gabra 1971, 98). 132 FIGURE 132. The solar boat of Chapter 16 of the Book of the Dead on the eastern wall of the second decorated room in the same tomb (Gabra et al 1941, pl. xvii, 2). 133 FIGURE 133. Anubis attends Osiris’ mummy on the southern wall of the second painted room in the same tomb (Gabra et al 1941, pl. xvii, 1). 134 FIGURE 134. Plan of the Tomb of Petosiris at the Dakhla Oasis (Riggs 2005, 160, Figure 75). 135 FIGURE 135. The scenes depicted on the southern wall of the outer room of the same tomb (Osing et al 1982, pl. 26.a). 135 FIGURE 136. The scenes depicted on the north wall of the outer room in the same tomb (Osing et al 1982, pl. 25.b). 135 FIGURE 137. The scenes depicted on the west wall of the first room in the same tomb (Osing et al 1982, pl. 26.b). 136 FIGURE 138. Petosiris wears a Roman toga to the left of the doorway to the second room of the same tomb (Osing et al 1982, pl. 32.a). 137 FIGURE 139. The tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel (author). 139 FIGURE 140. Harvest scenes in the pronaos of the tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004, Figure 6.3.6). 139 FIGURE 141. The Figures represented in the pronaos of the tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel wearing Greek clothing (Willeitner 2004, 316, Figure 52). 139 FIGURE 142. The male statue in the main tomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (Venit 2002a, 131, Figure 108). 140 FIGURE 143. The female statue in the main tomb at Kom el-Shouqafa (Venit 2002a, 132, Figure 109). 141 FIGURE 144. The depiction of a deceased wearing Greek garment and being involved in the Judgment of the Dead scene on a first-century sarcophagus (Riggs 2005, 104, Figure 42). 142 FIGURE 145. The depiction of a deceased wearing Greek garment, but involved in the Judgment of the Dead (Riggs 2005, 146, Figure 67). 142 FIGURE 146. The mummy mask of Titus Flavius Demetrius, a Roman citizen who lived in the late first and early second century (Riggs 2005, 21, Figure 4). 142 Chapter V: Architectural Ornament and Egyptian Cultural Identity 145 FIGURE 147. The four types of zigzag decoration on the torus moulding (Arnold 1984, 320). 149 FIGURE 148. Chapels to the west of the Sed-court at the Djoser complex, Saqqara (Arnold 2003, 73). 150 FIGURE 149. Entrance to the niche of chapel B, the Valley Temple of king Sneferu, Dahshur (Fakhry 1961, Figure 127). 150 FIGURE 150. The cavetto and torus on the Bab el-Amara at Karnak (Aufrère, Golvin and Goyon 1997, 116). 151 FIGURE 151. The cartouches on the cavetto cornice of the pylon of Ramesses II in the temple of Luxor (author). 152 FIGURE 152. The decorations on the cavetto cornice of the rear wall in the temple of Dendera (author) 152 FIGURE 153. A Hathoric column from the Iseum Campense at Rome (Roullet 1972, pl. XII, 33). 152 FIGURE 154. The pronaos of the north temple of Tafa (Hölbl 2004, 103, pl. 139). 152 FIGURE 155. Rear view of the central gate of the pylon at the temple of Kalabsha (Hölbl 2004, 109, pl. 148). 153 FIGURE 156. A segmental pediment with a winged sun-disc from the Iseum Campense at Rome (Roullet 1972, pl. xxxvi.51). 153 FIGURE 157. Screen wall to the south of the façade of the pronaos at the temple of Kalabsha (Hölbl 2004, 112, pl. 153). 153 FIGURE 158. A frieze of cobras carrying solar discs from the Iseum Campense at Rome (Roullet 1972, pl. xxxvi.49). 154 FIGURE 159. The imperial dedicatory inscription on the cavetto of the pronaos of the temple of Dendera (author). 154 FIGURE 160. Hieroglyphic texts and reliefs on the cavetto cornice of the pronaos at Dendera (author). 154 FIGURE 161. Façade of the pronaos of the temple of Esna (author). 155 FIGURE 162. The low rectangular base of the torus at the temple of Esna (author). 155 FIGURE 163. The cavetto cornice at the upper right corner of the façade of the temple of Esna (author). 156 FIGURE 164. Façade of the temple of Sobek-Re at Qasr Qarun (Arnold 1999, 256, Figure 219). 156 FIGURE 165. Type E zigzag decoration on the torus of the pronaos of the temple of Nero at Akoris (author). 156 FIGURE 166. The torus moulding at the northern wall of the pronaos in the Domitianic temple at Aswan (Hölbl 2004, 39, pl. 45). 156 FIGURE 167. The torus moulding on the gate of Domitian at the temple of Dendera (Arnold 1999, 261, Figure 227). 157 FIGURE 168. The Kiosk of Trajan at Philae (author). 157 FIGURE 169. Details of the torus moulding of the southern screen wall at the same kiosk (author). 157 FIGURE 170. The cavetto cornice and frieze of cobras on the southern screen wall at the same kiosk (author). 158 FIGURE 171. A decorative composite column uncovered from the Tomb of Tutankhamen (Arnold 1999, 298, Figure 257). 159 FIGURE 172. A relief carved with papyrus and lotus, unknown provenance (Roullet 1972, Figure 73). 159 FIGURE 173. A simple composite capital in the pronaos of Psametik II in the temple of Hibis (Arnold 1999, 299, Figure 259). 160 FIGURE 174. A simple composite capital in the Portico of Nectanebo I in the temple of Hibis (McKenzie 2007, 124, Figure 208). 160 FIGURE 175. The five-tiered band in the mortuary temple of King Sahure at Abusir (Clarke and Engelbach 1930, Figure 159). 162 FIGURE 176. Capital cores with single, four, or eight-stemmed sections (Arnold 2003, 57). 162 FIGURE 177. The floral elements of Egyptian composite capital as organized into two to five tiers (Arnold 2003, 57). 162 FIGURE 178. Egyptian composite capitals in the Portico of Nectanebo I at the temple of Hibis (McKenzie 2007, 124, Figure 207). 164 FIGURE 179. Simple composite capitals of the kiosk of the temple of Ptah at Karnak (Arnold 1999, 167, Figure 113). 164 FIGURE 180. Simple composite capitals on the pronaos of Ptolemy III Euergetes I in the temple of Qasr el-Ghueita (Aufrère, Golvin and Goyon 1994, 100). 164 FIGURE 181. Simple composite capitals in the pronaos of the Isis temple at Philae (McKenzie 130, Figure 216). 165 FIGURE 182. Simple composite quatrefoil capitals in the temple of Hathor at Deir el-Medina (Wilkinson 2000, 190). 165 FIGURE 183. A Corinthian capital on the tholos at Epidaurus (McKenzie 2007, 84, Figure 121). 165 FIGURE 184. Egyptian composite capital with three layers of floral leaves and volutes from the temple of Hathor at Philae (author). 166 FIGURE 185. Egyptian composite capital with five tiers of leaves and volutes in the Birth House at Philae (author). 166 FIGURE 186. Egyptian composite capital with five tiers of leaves and volutes in the outer pronaos of the temple of Edfu (author). 166 FIGURE 187. Simple composite and papyriform capitals in the pronaos of the temple of Montu at Medamud (Arnold 1999, 196, Figure 146). 166 FIGURE 188. Egyptian composite capital with five tiers of umbel and volute (Type 24) in the outer pronaos of the temple at Kom Ombo (Wilkinson 2000, 209). 167 FIGURE 189. Egyptian composite capital (Type 10) in the outer pronaos at Kom Ombo (McKenzie 134, Figure 230). 167 FIGURE 190. Egyptian composite capitals of Type 19, with a single row of acanthus leaves above bead-and-reel decoration, the West Colonnade at Philae (author). 167 FIGURE 191. Egyptian composite capitals of Type 19, with acanthus leaves and helices, the West Colonnade at Philae (author). 167 FIGURE 192. Egyptian composite capitals on the West Colonnade at Philae with vine leaves (author). 167 FIGURE 193. Egyptian composite capitals on the West Colonnade at Philae with bunches of grapes under the volutes (author). 168 FIGURE 194. Egyptian composite capitals on the West Colonnade at Philae with a lotus motif (author). 168 FIGURE 195. Egyptian composite capitals on the West Colonnade at Philae with the Oudjat-eye of Horus (author). 168 FIGURE 196. A cartouche of Augustus on the abacus of a column in the West Colonnade at Philae (author). 168 FIGURE 197. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on an abacus of a column in the West Colonnade at Philae (Arnold 1999, 296, Figure 255). 169 FIGURE 198. Simple composite capital with a lotus motif on the entrance-column of the Kiosk of Trajan at Philae (author). 169 FIGURE 199. Simple composite capital with vines and date palms in the pronaos of the temple of Esna (McKenzie 2007, 143, Figure 250). 169 FIGURE 200. Simple composite capitals of the Birth House at Dendera (author). 169 Eoman Egypt,identity,architecture