Education, Civics, and Citizenship in Egypt: Towards More Inclusive Curricular Representations and Teaching (Curriculum Studies Worldwide)

This book explores how to render curricular representations more inclusive and how individuals’ interactions with competing historical narratives and discourses shape their civic attitudes and intergroup dynamics. Based on ethnographic research in the Egyptian context, it offers insights for curriculum developers, teacher educators, and teachers interested in the development of critical citizens who are able to engage with multiple narratives and perspectives. Drawing on theorizations of historical consciousness, critical pedagogy, and critical discourse analysis, it demonstrates the need for more nuanced and holistic analytical frameworks and pedagogical tools. Further, it offers insights towards building such analytical and pedagogical approaches to help gain a deeper understanding of connections between students’ historical consciousness tendencies and their civic engagement as citizens. Foreword Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Education, Competing Discourses, Historical Narratives, and Civic Attitudes Timeliness and Urgency of This Discussion Competing Imaginings of the Nation Centrality of Historical Narratives in the Modern Nation-Building Project Territorial Nationalism and Secular Egyptianism Supra-Nationalist Ideologies (Pan-Arabism and Islamism) Resurgence of a Nationalistic Territorial (Egyptianist) Meta-Discourse? The Egyptian Context A Growing Interest in Historical Roots (or Nostalgia for the Past) Among Egyptians Egyptian Youth About the Study Why This Study? Key Questions Explored Social Identity and Civic Attitudes General Approaches Framing the Study Critical Pedagogy Centrality of Students’ Agency and Resistance Critical Discourse Analysis Discourse and Social Identity Influences of Curricular Content and Enactment on Human Subjectivities and Identities Theoretical Approaches to Understanding How Humans Interact with the Past Theoretical Approaches to Historical Consciousness Defining ‘historical consciousness’ Jörn Rüsen’s Typology of Historical Consciousness Historical Consciousness and External Orientation Introducing Additional Nuances to Rüsen’s Typology Lack of Attention to Societal Power Dynamics and Structural Dimensions Schematic Narrative Templates Engaging with Schematic Narrative Templates Schematic Narrative Templates: A Connection to Locate Historical Narratives Within Dominant Discourses? Illustrative Questions Analyzing and Deconstructing Master Narratives Studying the Historical Consciousness of Individuals How This Book Is Organized References Chapter 2: The Egyptian Educational System and Curriculum Since the 1800s Until the Present: Key Continuities and Changes Education as a Tool to Control the Masses and Shape Cultural and Social Identities? Key Continuities and Changes Shaping Modern Education in Egypt Mehmed Ali and His Dynasty: Seeds of a Modern Education Ismail Pasha: An Accelerated Modernization Between Modern and Traditional Education: The Curriculum Under Mehmed Ali’s Dynasty Diverging Visions and Tensions Between Religious and Modern Curriculum The British Occupation and Constitutional Monarchy (1882–1952): Conflicting Visions of Inclusive Access to Education Curriculum Under the British Occupation and Constitutional Monarchy The Nasser Era: Expansion of Free Education for the Masses and Strong Ideological Overtones Curriculum Under Nasser: A Unified National Curriculum Curricular Revisionism, Essentializing a Pan-Arab and Socialist Identity Beginnings of a Bolder Islamist Infiltration of Curricula? The Sadat Era: Resurgence of Religious-Based Education and Economically Segregated Schooling Curriculum Under Sadat The Mubarak Era: Sporadic Reform Efforts 2011 Until the Present: Bold Visions for Educational Reforms Curriculum During the Mubarak Era Until the Present Efforts to Confront Islamist Influences on Curricula Tensions Around Attempts to Render Curricula More Inclusive and Pluralist The Historic 2011 and 2013 Revolutions in Curricula Ongoing Tensions and Curricular Compromises Between the Religious and Secular Curricular Influences on Egyptian Students’ Understandings of History Ambitious Visions? The Egyptian Schematic Narrative Template References Chapter 3: Young Egyptians’ Interactions With the Official Curriculum and Its Classroom Enactment Interactions with the Dominant Historical Narrative A Narrative Arc of General Decline? History as Cyclical in Nature and Governed by Repetitive Patterns Key Elements and Representations of the Dominant Narrative Challenged The Omission of People’s Histories and Struggles Problematized People’s Agency Misrepresented Questioning the Prominence of Leaders or ‘Saviors’ vis-à-vis ‘The People’ Older Generations’ Authority Challenged The Prevalence of a Cairo-Centric Narrative Problematized Skepticism Toward the Self-aggrandizing Tone of the Dominant Narrative Problematizing the Omission of Sectarian Tensions Interactions With the Formal History Education Curriculum Unbalanced Textbook Representations of January 2011 Revolution: A Key Turning Point Alternative Sources of Historical Knowledge Family As an Alternative Source of Historical Knowledge Elements of Coptic Church’s Sunday School As Sources of Historical Knowledge (for Some Coptic Participants) Participants’ Approaches to History Traditional/Exemplary Tendencies Traditional/Exemplary (Unreflective) Traditional/Exemplary (Reflective) Critical Tendencies Critical (Unreflective) Critical (Reflective) Critical (Reflective, and Conscious of Power Dynamics) Critical and Multi-Perspectival Tendencies Final Thoughts References Chapter 4: Young Egyptians’ Civic Attitudes and Engagement Influences of Interactions with Dominant Narrative and Omissions on Shaping Civic Attitudes Understandings of Egyptian Identity Shaped by Interactions with Dominant Narrative and Recent Political Events The 2011 Revolution: Inspiring a Sense of an Inclusive Egyptian Identity Middle-Class People Care More and Are ‘More Egyptian’ Sense of Exclusion Prompting Community Outreach and Civic Engagement Lived Political Events Contributing to Shifts in Approaches to Civic Engagement Shifts from Short-Term Charity Activities to Economic Empowerment and Awareness Building Shifts Away from Purely Patriotic or Narrowly Defined Nationalistic Motives Approaches Toward History and the Dominant Narrative Expressed Skepticism Toward the Master Narrative and Formal Curriculum Proposing a Typology of Approaches to History and the Dominant Narrative Emerging Nuances Within the Framework of Historical Consciousness Critical (Unreflective) Critical (Reflective, and Conscious of Power Dynamics) Critical and Multi-Perspectival Tendencies The Fluidity of the Proposed Typology Factors Influencing Shifts in Approaches to History and Dominant Narrative Momentous Political Events as Key Turning Points in Challenging Dominant Narrative A Gradual Erosion of the Dominant Narrative’s Legitimacy Challenging Key Elements of the ‘Schematic Narrative Template’ Through Civic Engagement and Actions Exposure to Historical Research Methods Helps Move Beyond Critical Deconstruction of Dominant Narrative Resilience of the Schematic Narrative Template and Dominant Narrative The Primordial Egyptian State Lack of Coherent Alternative Narratives, Chronologies, or Periodization Permeation of Dominant Linguistic References and Representations The Burden of Ancient Glories and an Ancient, Resilient State Interactions with Historical Misrepresentations and Influences on Civic Attitudes General Sense of Exclusion Defining Civic Attitudes References Chapter 5: Toward More Holistic Analytical Frameworks and Pedagogical Tools: How Do Interactions With History Shape Civic Engagement and Actions? Exploring Connections Between Historical Consciousness, and Citizenship and Civic Engagement Tendencies Tendencies of Civic Engagement and Actions Capturing Further Nuances Based on the Egyptian Context Connections Emerging Between Historical Consciousness Tendencies, and Civic Engagement and Actions Toward a More Holistic Framework: Offering Initial Insights and Building Blocks Importance of Examining Often Neglected Factors and Dimensions Shaping Civic Engagement and Actions Examining Structural Barriers and Impediments Examining Levels of Awareness and Knowledge of Needs and Opportunities Role of Dominant and Competing Discourses Understanding Motives and Intentions Concluding Remarks References Chapter 6: Toward More Inclusive Curricular Representations and Classroom Practices Summary of Key Findings Interactions with the Dominant Narrative Influences of Interactions with Dominant Historical Narrative on Subjectivities and Civic Attitudes How Competing, Dominant Societal Discourses Shape Students’ Engagement with Historical Narratives Confined Within Competing Dominant Discourses and Epistemologies? How the Competing Dominant Discourses Converge with and Diverge from Each Other Implications and Scholarly Contributions Theoretical Implications Acknowledging Nuances Within Individuals’ Approaches to History and the Dominant Narrative Understanding How Historical Consciousness and Interactions with Historical Narratives Contribute to Shaping Civic Attitudes and Actions Toward More Holistic, Critical, and Multi-Perspectival Curricula Some Key Positive Aspects of the Formal Egyptian Curriculum Curricular Content: Areas for Reflection and Consideration Expanding the Space Allotted to Religious and Ethnic Minority Narratives and Contributions Acknowledging the Multiplicity of Narratives and Perspectives Including More Role Models and Historical Figures That Students Can Identify with Curricular Approaches and Classroom Practices: Areas for Reflection and Consideration Less Content and Less Emphasis on Rote Memorization: Representations of Ancient Egyptian History As a Case in Point Striking a Balance Between Desired Historical Skills and Content Teacher Preparation to Critically Engage with Dominant Discourses Teacher Preparation to Critically Engage Students with Their Positionalities Closing Remarks References Appendices Appendix 1: Participant Demographics (n = 39) Appendix 2: Written Narrative Exercise (English Translation). Guidelines: First, Personal Information: Second, Research Questions: Appendix 3: Pre-Interview Drawing Exercise and Interview Prompts. Reflections on Pre-Interview Drawing Clarifications from Written Narrative Exercise Sources of Historical Knowledge Inclusion/Exclusion Connecting History Education and Civic Engagement Ideal Textbook/Curriculum Appendix 4: Prompts for Participatory Visual Methods Workshop Guidelines References Index