Ecology of Angola : Terrestrial Biomes and Ecoregions

This open access book richly illustrates the first, and comprehensive, account of the country’s biomes and ecoregions, the driving forces that account for their diversity and vulnerability, and the ecological principles that provide an understanding of the patterns and processes that have shaped landscapes, ecoregions, and ecosystems. Angola encompasses the greatest diversity of terrestrial biomes and is the second richest in terms of ecoregions, of any African country. Yet its biodiversity and the structure and functioning of its ecosystems are largely undocumented. The author draws on personal field observations from over 50 years of involvement in ecological and conservation studies in Angola and across Southern Africa. The vast recent literature published by researchers in neighboring, better resourced countries provides depth to the accounts of ecological principles and processes relevant to Angola and thus contributing to the understanding and sustainable management of its natural resources. Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Editorial Notes References Contents About the Author Part I An Introduction to Angola’s Biomes and Ecoregions 1 Opportunities in and Approaches to the Study of Angolan Ecology 1.1 The Science and Practice of Ecology 1.2 The Structure of This Introduction to Terrestrial Ecology 1.3 How to Use This Book: Interconnections and Recurrent Messages References 2 Biomes: Concepts, Characteristics and Terminology 2.1 Biodiversity, Biogeography and Centres of Endemism 2.2 Biome and Ecoregion Definition and Characterisation 2.3 The Biomes of Africa in Outline 2.4 Classification of Angola’s Biomes and Ecoregions References 3 Profiles of Angola’s Biomes and Ecoregions 3.1 Guineo-Congolian Rain Forest Biome and Forest/Savanna Mosaic 3.2 Afromontane Forest and Grassland Biome 3.3 Mesic Savanna Biome 3.4 Arid Savanna Biome 3.5 Namib Desert Biome 3.6 Mangrove Biome 3.7 Angolan Escarpment Zone References Part II Determinants of Pattern: Conditions, Resources and Disturbance 4 Landscapes: Geology, Geomorphology and Hydrology 4.1 Geology: A Brief History of the Earth and of Angola 4.2 Landscapes, Landscape Ecology and Geomorphology 4.3 Hydrology: Wetlands, Water Towers, Rivers, Floodplains and Estuaries References 5 Solar Energy, Temperature and Rainfall 5.1 Where Life Begins: Solar Radiation and Photosynthesis 5.2 Seasonality of Day Length and Temperature 5.3 Large-Scale Drivers of Climate: Oceanic and Atmospheric Circulation 5.4 Local Influences: Maritime, Continental, Altitudinal and Aspect 5.5 Water Cycle Processes: Precipitation and Evapotranspiration 5.6 Regional Climates of Angola 5.7 Climate as a Determinant of Vegetation Patterns 5.8 El Niño, La Niña, Droughts and Floods References 6 Soil, Water and Nutrients 6.1 Soil Structure 6.2 Development of Soil: Weathering and Pedogenesis 6.3 Soil Water Relations 6.4 Soil Chemistry and Nutrient Status 6.5 Soils and Tree Growth 6.6 Soil Classification 6.7 Key Soil Groups of Angola References 7 The Ecological Role of Fire 7.1 The Ancient History of Fire in Africa 7.2 Fire Regimes and Pyromes 7.3 Fire Intensity 7.4 Fire Season 7.5 Fire Frequency 7.6 Impacts of Fire on Soils 7.7 Plant Responses to Fire 7.8 Responses of Animals to Fire References 8 Herbivory: Mammalian Grazers and Browsers 8.1 The Evolution of African Mammalian Herbivores and of Arid/Eutrophic Savannas 8.2 The Herbivomes of Africa 8.3 Patterns of Impacts of Browsers and Grazers References Part III Ecological Concepts and Ecosystem Processes 9 General Concepts in Ecology 9.1 The Evolutionary Basis of Ecology 9.1.1 Species Richness, Evenness and Diversity 9.2 Endemism, Threatened Species and Hotspots 9.3 Life History Patterns: r- and K-Selection Strategies 9.4 The Concepts of the Ecological Niche and the Guild 9.5 Herbivory, Predation, Parasitism and Mutualism 9.6 Theories of Island Biogeography and of Metapopulations References 10 Ecosystem Processes and Dynamics in Mesic Savannas 10.1 Food Chains, Food Webs and Trophic Levels 10.2 The Photosynthetic Pathways of Angolan Plants 10.3 Primary Production in Mesic Savannas 10.4 Standing Crop Biomass and Canopy Cover in Mesic Savannas 10.5 Herbivory and Primary Consumption in African Savannas 10.6 Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling 10.7 Savanna/Forest Dynamics: Fire as the Driver of Alternative Stable States References 11 Adaptations to Life in the Namib Desert 11.1 Water: The Currency of Life in Desert Environments 11.2 Adaptations to the Heat of the Desert 11.3 Competition for Food in a Low Productivity Environment 11.4 Defence Mechanisms: Camouflage, Deceit, Mimicry, Spines, Poisons and Social Behaviour 11.5 Reproduction and Survival in Desert Environments References Part IV Ecological Features of Angolan Biomes and Ecoregions 12 The Guineo-Congolian Rain Forest Biome 12.1 Definitition and Distribution 12.2 Climate and Microclimate: The Roles of Fog (Cacimbo) and of Shade 12.3 Physiognomic Structure 12.4 Forest Canopy Growth Cycles: Gap-Phase Dynamics 12.5 Floristic Composition 12.6 Faunal Composition 12.7 Rain Forest Mammals 12.8 Interconnections Between Plants and Animals References 13 The Afromontane Forest and Montane Grassland Biome 13.1 Afromontane Forests (Ecoregion 4) 13.2 Afromontane Grasslands (Ecoregion 5) 13.3 Faunal Composition of Afromontane Forests and Grasslands References 14 The Mesic Savanna Biome 14.1 Definition and Distribution 14.2 Landscapes, Soils, the Catena Concept, Termitaria and Underground Forests 14.3 Climate and Seasonality 14.4 Floristic Composition, Physiognomic Structure and Phenology 14.5 Faunal Composition of Mesic Savannas 14.6 Mammals of the Angolan Mesic Savannas References 15 The Arid Savanna Biome 15.1 Angolan Mopane Woodlands (Ecoregion 12) 15.2 Namib Savanna Woodlands (Ecoregion 13) 15.3 Coastal Arid Savannas (Ecoregion 14) 15.4 Faunal Composition of Arid Savannas References 16 The Namib Desert Biome 16.1 The Age and Evolution of the Namib Desert 16.2 Landscapes and Soils 16.3 Climate: The South Atlantic Anticyclone, the Benguela Current and Wind 16.4 Floristic Composition and Physiognomy of the Angolan Namib Desert Ecoregion 16.5 Faunal Composition of the Namib Desert References 17 The Mangrove Biome 17.1 Definition and Distribution 17.2 Floristic Composition and Physiognomy 17.2.1 Mangrove Adaptations to Waterlogged Soil 17.2.2 Adaptations to Changes in Salinity 17.2.3 Reproductive Adaptations 17.2.4 Seagrass Meadows 17.3 Faunal Composition of Mangrove and Seagrass Meadow Ecosystems References 18 The Angolan Escarpment Zone 18.1 Sectors of the Angolan Escarpment Zone 18.2 Sectors of the Angolan Escarpment Zone 18.3 Vertebrate Fauna of the Escarpment Zone References Part V Synopsis and Conclusions 19 Key Elements of Angolan Terrestrial Ecology 19.1 The Big Picture: Global Tectonic and Climatic Forces that Have Shaped Angola’s Biomes and Biota 19.2 Contemporary Drivers of Ecosystem Structure and Function in Angola 19.3 Ecological Patterns at African and Angolan Scales 19.4 Patterns at Landscape Scale in Angola 19.5 Ecological Concepts and Theories Relevant to Conserving Angolan Species 19.6 Conclusions: Why Ecology? An Opportunity for Young Angolan Students References Appendix Names of Vertebrate Species Mentioned in This Volume References -4pt- Glossary of Ecological Terms