مناظر کلیسایی در اروپا در قرون وسطی: یک دیدگاه باستان‌شناسی

By presenting case studies from across eastern and western medieval Europe, Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Medieval Europe aims to start a Europe-wide debate on the variety of relations and contexts between ecclesiastical buildings and their surrounding landscapes between the 5th and 15th centuries AD. The book contains 16 papers dealing with 11 very diverse regions: Transylvania, Western Bohemia, Switzerland, Tuscany, the Po Valley, Central Spain, Galicia, England, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ireland. The volume is divided into two main thematic sections. ‘Ecclesiastical Topographies’ comprises works exploring the spatial dimension of ecclesiastical architecture during the Middle Ages, particularly regarding the creation of the parish system and the relationship between churches and cemeteries. In ‘Monastic Landscapes’ medieval monasteries provide an especially interesting case study because of their recognised capacity to modify the surrounding environment. As a result of the convergence of these perspectives, the hope is that this book will offer researchers ample comparative evidence for understanding the universal elements of ecclesiastical landscapes which transcend both chronological and geographical limits. Table of Contents Introduction: Towards an Archaeological Study of Medieval Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Europe – José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo, Emmet H. Marron and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic FIRST PART: ECCLESIASTICAL TOPOGRAPHIES 1. Lesser Churches, Kin-groups and Communities in the Early Middle Ages: Archaeological Evidence from Corcu Duibne, Ireland – Tomás Ó Carragáin 2. By Land and Sea: Medieval Places and Ways of Faith in the Isle of Man – Andrew Johnson 3. The Late Antique Ecclesiastical Settlement of Los Hitos and the Rural Landscapes of the Visigoth Capital (Toledo, Spain) – Isabel Sánchez Ramos and Jorge Morín de Pablos 4. Landscapes of Christianisation. The Emergence and Evolution of Church Power in the Tuscan Countryside During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages – Gabriele Castiglia, Stefano Bertoldi and Cristina Menghini 5. Christianization and Transformation of Religious Landscape in (West) Bohemia – Martin Čechura 6. The Rise of the Parish System in Transylvania as Reflected by the Archaeological Discoveries – Maria Crîngaci Țiplic 7. Architectural Interferences in Medieval Transylvania (13th–15th Centuries): the Archaeology of Orthodox Churches in a Catholic Landscape – Daniela Marcu Istrate 8. The Archaeology of Romanesque Churches in Transylvania (11th–13th Centuries) – Ioan Marian Țiplic and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic SECOND PART: MONASTIC LANDSCAPES 9. Monastic Landscapes in the Isle of Man: Ad 1100 to 1540 – Peter Davey 10. On the Edge: Excavations at Whitefriars, Perth, 2014-2017 – Derek Hall 11. Cistercian Rievaulx Abbey and the ‘Transformation’ of King Henry II’s Wasteland – Freya Horsfield 12. Evolution, Innovation and Symbolism in Medieval Monastic Gardens – James Bond 13. Ecclesiastical Landscapes in early Medieval Galicia: Physical and Symbolic Transformations – José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo and Marco V. García Quintela 14. Stone Building in the Alps: Müstair Monastery in its Landscape Context – Sophie Hüglin and Patrick Cassitti 15. Rural Monasteries and Wilderness in Carolingian Northern Italy: Forest, Water and Ecclesiastical Landscapes – Marco Panato 16. Similarities and Differences of a Benedictine and a Cistercian Abbey as Reflected in the Landscape. Beginnings for a Comparative Approach – Ünige Bencze By presenting case studies from across eastern and western medieval Europe, Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Medieval Europe aims to start a Europe-wide debate on the variety of relations and contexts between ecclesiastical buildings and their surrounding landscapes between the 5th and 15th centuries AD. The book contains 16 papers dealing with 11 very diverse regions: Transylvania, Western Bohemia, Switzerland, Tuscany, the Po Valley, Central Spain, Galicia, England, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ireland. The volume is divided into two main thematic sections. ‘Ecclesiastical Topographies’ comprises works exploring the spatial dimension of ecclesiastical architecture during the Middle Ages, particularly regarding the creation of the parish system and the relationship between churches and cemeteries. In ‘Monastic Landscapes’ medieval monasteries provide an especially interesting case study because of their recognised capacity to modify the surrounding environment. As a result of the convergence of these perspectives, the hope is that this book will offer researchers ample comparative evidence for understanding the universal elements of ecclesiastical landscapes which transcend both chronological and geographical limits. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright page 4 Contents Page 5 Introduction: Towards an Archaeological Study of Medieval Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Europe 7 José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo, Emmet H. Marron and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic 7 FIRST PART: ECCLESIASTICAL TOPOGRAPHIES 11 Lesser Churches, Kin-groups and Communities in the Early Middle Ages: Archaeological Evidence from Corcu Duibne, Ireland 13 Tomás Ó Carragáin 13 Figure 1. The Kingdom of Corcu Duibne showing its main sub-divisions and all known church sites. Nick Hogan, University College Cork. 15 Figure 2. The Iveragh (Uí Rátach) Study Area comprising the bailte of Reencaheragh and Letter showing all known early medieval sites. The townlands (subdivisions of the bailte), as depicted on the seventeenth-century Down Survey, are also shown. Nick Hoga 16 Figure 3. Plan of the early ecclesiastical site on Long Island, Reencaheragh townland. O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996. 18 Figure 4. Aerial photograph of Illaunloughan, the excavated (and conserved) island monastery in the sound between Reencaheragh and Valentia. Con Brogan, National Monuments Service. 19 Figure 5. Plan of Cloghanecarhan, one of seven church sites in the baile of Letter. O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996. 19 Figure 6. Aerial photo of Letter church site (centre) and two of the three raths in its townland. Digital Globe. 20 Figure 7. The Dingle (Áes Irruis Tuascirt) study area showing all known early medieval settlements. The land units shown were probably half bailte (see text). Nick Hogan, University College Cork. 21 Figure 8. Aerial photo of Lisdargan church site (top right, c. 74 m across) and some of the raths within the same half baile (Monagh). Digital Globe. 24 Figure 9. Plan of Churchfield, a relatively large (71 m) ecclesiastical enclosure with an early mortared stone church. Cuppage 1986. 25 By Land and Sea: Medieval Places and Ways of Faith in the Isle of Man 29 Andrew Johnson 29 Figure 1. The Isle of Man: its mountainous interior, early medieval chapels and burial grounds, medieval parish centres and parochial boundaries. Also shown, for ease of reference, are the outlines of the detailed maps forming Figures 2-8. 30 Figure 2. Keeill Pharlane and Keeill Pheric. Contours show the rugged interior of the island in contrast to the morainic landscape around both chapels. Several of the nearby hillocks are crowned with burial monuments, whilst the coastline is characterised 31 Figure 3. Raby Mooar and Crosh Pharlane. Inset top: the view to seaward from Raby Mooar. Inset bottom: the beach at Traie ny Voillan, showing the start of the path down the cliffs as a darker green zig-zag in the foreground. 32 Figure 4. Lag ny Keeilley. Contours emphasise the steeply sloping coastline to north and south. Inset: the view south from the shore at Niarbyl, with Lag ny Keeilley highlighted in red. 33 Figure 5. Keeill Catreeney, Keeill Moirrey and Ballaqueeney. 35 Figure 6. Chapel Hill, Keeill Oran, Keeill Pharlane and Scarlett. Inset top: calm waters within Poyllvaaish. Inset centre: the inlet adjacent to Keeill Pharlane. Inset bottom: eroded geological dykes form clear channels leading to the beach at Scarlett. 36 Figure 7. St Michael’s Isle, Ronaldsway and Santon. Inset top: the inscribed slab found forming the western end of one of the shrines (Manx Cross 164, measures 0.65 x 0.54 m). Inset bottom: the shrines following investigation in 1937. 37 Figure 8. St Adamnan’s, Lonan. Contours emphasise how the former parish church was concealed from the sea, whilst the ways to and from the shore can be reconstructed from a combination of paths, tracks and roads. 38 The Late Antique Ecclesiastical Settlement of Los Hitos and the Rural Landscapes of the Visigoth Capital (Toledo, Spain) 45 Isabel Sánchez Ramos and Jorge Morín de Pablos 45 Figure 1. Map with the main Visigothic archaeological sites in the Region of Toledo. 1. Las Vegas (La Pueblanueva); 2. El Saucedo (Talavera de la Reina); 3. Las Tamujas (Malpica de Tajo); 4. St Maria de Abajo (Carranque); 5. El Rincón (Alcolea de Tajo); 6 46 Figure 2. Location of the archeological site of Los Hitos (© Authors). 47 Figure 3. 2018 Orthoimage of the late antique complex of Los Hitos (© Authors). 48 Figure 4. Areal view of the pantheon. Note the principal burial in sarcophago in the middle of the central chamber (© Authors). 49 Figure 5. Spatheia (small ceramic amphora) recuperated in 2016 excavation (©Authors). 50 Figure 6. The late antique church of Los Hitos (©Authors). 51 Figure 7. Sacred architecture in the territory of Toledo: a) St Pedro de la Mata church; b) Guarrazar; c) St Maria de Melque church (© Authors). 53 Figure 8. Los Hitos. a-b) Architectonical restituion of the funerary building proposed by the authors (© J.R. González de la Cal); c) Ideal restitution of the ecclesiastical complex at the end of Late Antiquity proposed by the authors (© Albert Alvarez Ma 54 Landscapes of Christianisation. The Emergence and Evolution of Church Power in the Tuscan Countryside During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages 58 Gabriele Castiglia, Stefano Bertoldi and Cristina Menghini 58 Figure 1. The most important sites mentioned in the paper (S. Bertoldi). 59 Figure 2. Comparison between the new foundations (in blue) and the churches effectively known for each century (so, comprehending also the more ancient ones) (G. Castiglia). 60 Figure 3. Plan comparison between urban and rural churches in the longue durée (G. Castiglia). 62 Figure 4. The area of the monastery of San Salvatore and its walking distances (S. Bertoldi, C. Menghini). 64 Figure 5. The natural canalization systems between the Mount Amiata and San Salvatore (S. Bertoldi, C. Menghini). 65 Christianization and Transformation of Religious Landscape in (West) Bohemia 72 Martin Čechura 72 Figure 1a. Map of Czech Republic showing the surveyed region. Drawing by M. Čechura. 73 Figure 1b. Map of West Bohemia with surveyed sites. Drawing by M. Čechura. 1: Albrechtice, 2: Čečovice, 3: Dobrá Voda, 4: Domažlice, 5: Hradec u Stoda, 6: Planá, 7: Planá nade Mží, 8: Plzeň-Doubravka, 9: Přeštice, 10: Starý Plzenec, 11: Štítary, 12: Sušic 73 Figure 2. Plzen-Doubravka, earrings with a S-shaped end and silver coin from graveyard. Drawing by F. Fryda. 75 Figure 3. Stronghold Starý Plzenec (Hůrka) with Church of St Peter. Aerial photo by M. Cechura. 77 Figure 4. Stronghold Hradec by Stod. Aerial photo by M. Cechura. 78 Figure 5. Stronghold Štítary. Aerial photo by P. Braun. 78 Figure 6. Domažlice, Church of St Jacob. Drawing by P. Hereit. 79 Figure 7. Čečovice, Church of St Nicolaus. Drawing by P. Hereit. 80 Figure 8. Planá, Church of St Peter and Paul. Drawing by F. Fryda. 81 Figure 9. Sušice, Church of Virgin Mary. Drawing by M. Cechura. 82 The Rise of the Parish System in Transylvania as Reflected by the Archaeological Discoveries 85 Maria Crîngaci Țiplic 85 Figure 1. Location of the Byzantine style church and the distribution of the row-grave cemeteries in the area of Alba Iulia (second half of the 10th century–11th century). 89 Figure 2. Distribution of the row-grave cemeteries in Transylvania (second half of the 10th century–12th century). 90 Figure 3. Distribution of churchyards with depositing coins inside the graves (second half of the 11th century–12th century). 92 Figure 4. Bishopric of Transylvania (structure of the archdeaconries) with its oldest possessions (based on maps from CDTrans. I and Hegyi 2018: 6). 92 Figure 5. The spread of churches, monasteries and churchyard/cemeteries in Transylvania in the 12th century and in the first half of the 13th century. 93 Figure 6. The medieval parish church of Sibiu: the ruins of the Romanesque apse partial unearthed in 2013 (Ţiplic, Țiplic and Ignat 2015: 241–242) and entirely unearthed in February and March of 2019 (© M. Crîngaci Țiplic, I.M. Țiplic and D. Marcu Istrate 94 Figure 7. The spread of churches and monasteries in Transylvania in the second half of the 13th century. 96 Architectural Interferences in Medieval Transylvania (13th–15th Centuries): the Archaeology of Orthodox Churches in a Catholic Landscape 100 Daniela Marcu Istrate 100 Figure 1. Medieval Orthodox churches in Transylvania built before 1500, with the places mentioned in text marked as such: Bogdan Vodă – Cuhea (10); Brașov (11); Cinciș (17); Dăbâca (23); Feleacu (27); Giulești (33); Hălmagiu (36); Hunedoara (38); Leșnic 3 101 Figure 2. Single-nave churches with a rectangular apse: 1. Sântămărie Orlea; 2. Streisângeorgiu; 3. Strei (photo: D. Marcu Istrate). 103 Figure 3. Churches with a semicircular apse: 1. Giulești (ruins); 2. Voivozi (ruins); 3. Almașu Mare-Joseni; 4. Râmeț. 104 Figure 4. Churches with Byzantine-style planimetry: 1. Hunedoara; 2. Viștea de Jos; 3. Paroși; 4. Prislop. 105 Figure 5. Single-nave churches with a polygonal apse, built in Gothic style: 1. Cuhea (ruins); 2. Lupșa (ground plan of the medieval church, based on archaeological researches). 106 Figure 6. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu, 15th century: 1. View from the east; 2. The present-day eighteenth-century western façade with their fitted Gothic portal. 3. The southern main entrance, with its Gothic portal. 4. View from the north, with the me 107 Figure 7. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu, 15th century: images from inside, taken during the archaeological excavations (photo: D. Marcu Istrate). 109 Figure 8. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu: the archaeology of the edifice (1) and planimetric restitution of the fifteenth-century church (2). 110 The Archaeology of Romanesque Churches in Transylvania (11th–13th Centuries) 113 Ioan Marian Țiplic and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic 113 Figure 1. Situation of archaeological research on medieval sites between 2000–2008 (adaptation after Pinter 2010). 115 Figure 2. Distribution of medieval archaeological research according to institution type (adaptation after Pinter 2010). 115 Figure 3. Romanesque churches from southern Transylvania: 1. Geoagiu de Jos; 2. Cisnădie; 3. Orăștie; 4. Cisnădioara; 5. Cincu (Photos by I.M. Țiplic and M. Crîngaci Țiplic). 118 Figure 4. The map of historical center of Sibiu with the localization of medieval churches, monasteries and chapels (1a. Dominican monastery until 1442; 1b. Dominican monastery after 1474; 2. The monastery of the Dominican nuns; 3. St Elisabeth church of 120 Figure 5. The geographical spread of Romanesque churches in the southern part of Transylvania until the first half of the 13th century (according to Crîngaci Țiplic and Țiplic 2016: 153). 122 Figure 6. The geographical spread of Romanesque churches in the southern part of Transylvania in the second half of the 13th century (according to Crîngaci Țiplic and Țiplic 2016: 154). 123 SECOND PART: MONASTIC LANDSCAPES 127 Monastic Landscapes in the Isle of Man: Ad 1100 to 1540 129 Peter Davey 129 Figure 1. Map of Isle of Man showing the medieval parishes and monastic holdings at the Dissolution in 1540. 131 Figure 2. Map of Malew showing the ten sections of monastic boundary described below together with the location of the monastic demesne and its farms, the king’s holding and post-medieval intack. 133 Figure 3. The erratic and partly ploughed out Section 3 of the monastic boundary: king’s land above (north), monastic land below (south), shown in air photo, 1st edition of the OS 25” 1868 and LiDAR. 134 Figure 4. A: Granite standing stone with incised cross, plough up from the monastic boundary above Oxwath and now re-erected in the garden of the farm at Ballavell; B: The flat-bottomed, dry valley called Fanc; C: The Fairy Bridge with gifts and messages 135 Figure 5. Folio 54v of the limites terrarum monachorum showing the additional footnote (cf Fellows-Jensen 2015, 263-9, Fig.12.2). 137 Figure 6. Map of the Malew Abbeylands showing the location of existing later prehistoric and early medieval sites (Davey 2017, 22-24). 139 Figure 7. Map of the Malew Abbeylands showing the position of place-names included in the limites where known. 140 Figure 8. Air-photograph of the right-angled junction within between Section 6 of the limites between Cornama and Totmanby showing access routes to common grazing for farms from the south (a lane in the centre) and east (a ploughed out green lane, now a f 141 On the Edge: Excavations at Whitefriars, Perth, 2014-2017 145 Derek Hall 145 Figure 1. Location of Perth in Scotland and Perth friaries (© Derek Hall). 146 Figure 2. Ground plan of first phase church and ranges (1262) and ground plan of remodelled church and ranges (1517) (© Derek Hall). 147 Figure 3. Detail of burial SK1406 with wooden ‘staff’ looking South (© Derek Hall). 148 Figure 4. General view of multiple burials in wood lined grave looking West (© Derek Hall). 148 Figure 5. Jet and single glass bead necklace or rosary (© Derek Hall). 149 Figure 6. Plan of two phases of Carmelite church (green is 1262 construction; red is 1517 rebuild) showing burial locations (red dots are definite later church burials) (© Derek Hall). 150 Figure 7. Fragment of chain mail leg from tomb effigy reused as packing in rood screen (© Derek Hall). 150 Figure 8. Wooden water trough in floor of South range looking East (© Derek Hall). 151 Cistercian Rievaulx Abbey and the ‘Transformation’ of King Henry II’s Wasteland 154 Freya Horsfield 154 Figure 1. Location of Pickering Marishes. Contains OS data. © Crown copyright and database right 2019. 155 Figure 2. Watercourses defined King Henry’s gift. Tithe commutation extent of Deerholme and Loft Marishes shown in relation to modern landscape.25cm Vertical Aerial Imagery (2007-2015) Scale 1:500. © Getmapping 2019. Downloaded: 2018-05-14 using EDINA Aer 157 Figure 3. Wider locations mentioned in text. Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019. Contours generated using Land-Form PROFILE Scale 1:10000 updated: 2009-11-05, using EDINA Digimap Ordnance Survey Service, https://digimap.edina.ac.uk 158 Figure 4a & 4b. Post-medieval canalisation of River Derwent. Copyright Laura Eddey. 160 Figure 5. Early monasteries established by Rivers Rye and Derwent and their tributaries. Only relevant watercourses shown.Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019. 161 Figure 6. Soil types at Deerholme and Loft Marishes. See Table 2 for details of soil types. Derived from OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019; Soils Data © Cranfield University (NSRI) 2018 165 Figure 7. Flooding over cultivation ridges photographed in winter 2012 at Sheepfoot Grange illustrate a challenge shared by medieval and modern farmers. Diagonal lines are artefacts of image overlay process. 166 Figure 8. Intake of land was a long-term process. New units were established throughout the history of Marishes. A selection of these are indicated, including multiple termed ‘new stead’ Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019. 167 Evolution, Innovation and Symbolism in Medieval Monastic Gardens 173 James Bond 173 Figure 1. Location of places mentioned in the text (prepared by Phil Knibb). 174 Figure 2. Mount Grace Charterhouse, Yorkshire: excavation of the garden of Cell 8 (courtesy of Glyn and Denny Coppack). 176 Figure 3. Gardens portrayed on the plan prepared c. 820 AD by Abbot Haito of Reichenau for the monastery of St Gallen, Switzerland: A = Infirmary Garden; B = Kitchen Garden; C = Orchard Cemetery (Bond 2016a). 177 Figure 4. Maxstoke Priory, Warwickshire: the walled subdivisions within the precinct reflect the documentary record of a conventual garden, a herbarium, and separate gardens for the prior, precentor, sacrist and infirmarer (Holliday 1874). 178 Figure 5. The excavated garden at Haverfordwest Priory, Pembrokeshire (drawn by Mike Rouillard, amended from Rees 1999, courtesy of Oliver Creighton). 178 Figure 6. Canterbury Cathedral Priory: part of the plan of the water system created by Prior Wibert, c. 1153–1161, showing the piscina (fishpond) in the monks’ cemetery and the herbarium in the infirmary cloister (from the Eadwine Psalter, MS R.17.1, fos. 182 Figure 7. Winchester: 15th-century gate to the garden known as Paradise, east of the north transept of the cathedral priory church (author). 183 Figure 8. St Ætheldreda, from the Benedictional of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, c. 975 (© The British Library Board, c13103-40, Add. 49596 f.90v). Inset: Madonna Lily, Lilium candidum L. (author). 184 Ecclesiastical Landscapes in early Medieval Galicia: Physical and Symbolic Transformations 188 José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo and Marco V. García Quintela 188 Figure 1. Location map of Galicia in Europe and Northwest Iberia, with indication of the two cases studies discussed in the paper. 189 Figure 2. Evolution of the vegetation cover as indicated by tree and shrub pollen analysis of a peat bog from Xistral Mountains (North Galicia). Graph made by A. Martínez Cortizas from Martínez Cortizas et al. 2005. 191 Figure 3. Archaeological interventions in agrarian structures (adapted from Ballesteros 2010). The circles indicate the cases studied by Ballesteros, in white those with radiocarbon datings. The white square indicates the fishery dated by OSL and studied 191 Figure 4. Evolution of metal pollution and pollen tree in Northwest Iberia in the last 5000 years (made by A. Martínez Cortizas from Martínez Cortizas et al. 2005; Mighall et al. 2006; Pontevedra Pombal et al. 2013). 192 Figure 5. Some of the main properties of the monastery of Samos in the 8th and 9th centuries AD cited in the text. 193 Figure 6. General view of Augas Santas parish territory (above), and images of the “Forno da Santa” and “Pioucas de Santa Mariña” (below). 197 Figure 7. Different views of Santa Mariña de Augas Santas area and the feast of Santa Mariña. 198 Figure 8. Multi-layered Christianisation of the Vacariza rock-carving, as explained in the text. 199 Stone Building in the Alps: Müstair Monastery in its Landscape Context 203 Sophie Hüglin and Patrick Cassitti 203 Figure 1: Müstair Monastery seen from west. The valley continues across the Swiss-Italian border through Taufers/Tubre to the Upper Adige Valley at Mals/Malles (Photo: S. Hüglin 2019). 204 Figure 2: Relief of lower Müstair Valley with neighbouring Vinschgau Valley. Müstair Monastery sits at the foot of a large alluvial fan coming from Avigna Valley (Illustration: P. Cassitti based on free online digital terrain models from swisstopo and Geo 204 Figure 3: Distribution of Bronze and Iron Age houses with stone cellars – so-called case retiche – in the Upper Adige region (IT) including Ramosch in Engadin (CH) (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth and Marzatico/Solano 2013, 270, fig. 2). 205 Figure 4: Selection of transalpine distribution of Roman and Late Antique stone buildings in the Upper Adige (IT) with sites in Müstair Valley and Engadin (CH) in the West and the Eisack Valley with Säben and St Lorenzen (IT) in the east (Illustration: S. 206 Figure 5: Distribution of early medieval stone architecture in the Upper Adige (IT) with sites in the Müstair (CH) and Eisack Valleys (IT) (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth). 207 Figure 6: Detail from late 15th century map by Henricus Martellus Germanus. Insularium Illustratum, Ms. 698, fol. 64v. The river in Müstair Valley is indicated in red ink as ‘lades f.’ (Cliché CNRS-IRHT, ©Bibliothèque et archives du château de Chantilly). 208 Figure 7: Phase plan of Müstair Monastery: grey = current buildings, orange = Bronze Age settlement, green = late Antique post building, blue = Carolingian convent AD 775d with church St John in the northeast and Holy Cross Chapel in the southeast corner, 209 Figure 8: The ecclesiastical landscape of the Central Alps in the Early Middle Ages: monasteries and episcopal sees (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth). 210 Rural Monasteries and Wilderness in Carolingian Northern Italy: Forest, Water and Ecclesiastical Landscapes 222 Marco Panato 222 Figure 1. Early medieval Po valley, hydrological reconstruction and places cited in the text. 223 Figure 2. The Veronese, its watercourses and the new 8th-9th century settlements. 227 Figure 3. Santa Maria of Gazzo and its epigraphical inscription. Source: Oliviero Ghisellini. 228 Figure 4. San Pietro in Valle. Source: Francesco Fullone. 229 Figure 5. Nogara and the 9th century site close to the Tartaro (elaboration from Saggioro 2012). 230 Figure 6. Banks stabilisation in Nogara (elaboration from Saggioro 2012). 231 Similarities and Differences of a Benedictine and a Cistercian Abbey as Reflected in the Landscape. Beginnings for a Comparative Approach 236 Ünige Bencze 236 Figure 1. The estate clusters of Cluj-Mănăştur in Cluj County (Bencze, Toda 2019: 102/Fig. 1). 237 Figure 2. Mills near Băgara on the First Military Survey (https://mapire.eu/en/browse/country/) (left) and one of the mill buildings today (right). 238 Figure 3. In the valley the drained site of the marshland Darwasto. 239 Figure 4. The site of Cârţa, before (left: on an ortophoto from 2005 with a possible early modern pond) and after (right: on Google Earth in 2019) the establishment of a modern fishery in 2014. 242 Figure 5. Fishponds above Chinteni as seen on the First (left) and Second (right) Military Surveys (https://mapire.eu/en/browse/country/). 243 Figure 6. Interpretation map of the features connected to water management in Cârţa: 1. Outline of the preserved buildings (church and eastern wing) 2. Modern buildings 3. Artificial canal which directed water from one of the springs to the monastic build 244 Back cover 247 Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Medieval Europe