Eastern Mediterranean metallurgy and metalwork in the second millennium BC : a conference in honour of James D. Muhly : Nicosia, 10th-11th October 2009

James D. Muhly is a distinguished scholar with a special interest in ancient metallurgy who has dedicated much of his research to Cypriot archaeology. His work on the metallurgy of ancient Cyprus endorses the true importance of the island as a copper producing region, as well as a pioneer in the development and spread of metallurgy and metalwork in the wider eastern and central Mediterranean region. This volume contains papers from "Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC", an international conference organised in Muhly's honour by the University of Cyprus. Several archaeologists and archaeometallurgists from around the world whose research focuses on the metallurgy of this period in Cyprus and surrounding regions were invited to participate in the conference to compare and contrast the material culture associated with metallurgical workshops and to discuss technological issues and their cultural and archaeological contexts. Some papers are devoted to the metallurgy and metalwork of Cyprus, presenting material from various sites and discussing the production and use of copper in the eastern Mediterranean. Others are dedicated to the Minoan and Aegean metal industry and the connections between Sardinia and Cyprus. Moving eastwards, from Anatolia through the Syro-palestinian coast and Jordan and south to Egypt, papers are presented that discuss Late Bronze Age metallurgy in Alalakh, Ugarit, Faynan, Timna and Qantir. The volume also includes papers on tin and iron. Table of Contents Preface ( V. Kassianidou and G. Papasavvas ) working with Jim Muhly ( R. Maddin ) 1. Late Bronze Age copper production in Cyprus from a mining geologist's perspective ( G. Constantinou ) 2. Metallurgical production and trade on Bronze Age views and variations ( A. B. Knapp ) 3. Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy ( M. R. Belgiorno, D. Ferro and D. R. Loepp ) 4. Tinker, tailor, farmer, metals in the Late Bronze Age economy at Kalavasos ( A. K. South ) 5. Standing on the metallurgical finds from Maroni-Vournes, Cyprus ( R. Doonan, G. Cadogan, and D. Sewell ) 6. From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom. Copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of Paphos ( M. Iacovou ) 7. The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus and in the wider Mediterranean ( N. H. Gale and Z. A. Stos-Gale ) 8. Reconstructing the Enkomi tombs (British excavations): an instructive exercise ( D. Pilides ) 9. Metallurgy and metalwork in the early phases ( V. Kassianidou ) 10. The Enkomi niello versus kuwano ( A. Giumlia-Mair ) 11. Profusion of Cypriot copper abroad, dearth of bronzes at reflections on a paradox in Late Bronze Age Cyprus ( G. Papasavvas ) 12. Cyprus and the transformation of the Minoan metalworking industry ( P. Betancourt ) 13. Metallurgy and metalworking in the harbour town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas ( N. Dimopoulou ) 14. Cyprus and Sardinia, beyond the oxhide ingots ( F. Lo Schiavo ) 15. On the cessation of local copper production in the Aegean in the 2nd millennium BC ( Y. Bassiakos and T. Tselios ) 16. Late Bronze Age Alalakh and a relationship of metals? ( A. K. Yener ) 17. The evidence for metallurgical workshops of the 2nd millennium in Ugarit ( E. Dardaillon ) 18. The merchants of oligarchs of the Late Bronze Age trade in metals? ( C. Bell ) 19. A unique casting mould from the new excavations at Timna Site 30 (Israel): evidence of western influence? ( E. Ben-Yosef ) 20. New perspectives on Iron Age copper production and society in the Faynan region, Jordan ( T. Levy, E. Ben-Yosef and M. Najjar ) 21. Alloying and resource management in New Kingdom the bronze industry at Qantir Pi-Ramesse and its relationship to Egyptian copper sources ( T. Rehren and E. B. Pusch ) 22. On ancient tin, its sources and further comments ( V. C. Pigott ) 23. Just a few rusty the innovation of iron in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC ( H. A. Veldhuijzen ) Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC: A conference in honour of James D. Muhly, Nicosia, 10th–11th October 2009 4 Contents 6 Vasiliki Kassianidou and George Papasavvas: Preface 8 List of contributors 12 Abbreviations 15 1 Robert Maddin: Reminiscences: working with Jim Muhly 16 Bibliography 18 2 George Constantinou: Late Bronze Age copper production in Cyprus from a mining geologists perspective 19 Introduction 19 Mining geology and the beginning of the exploitation of the copper sulphide deposits of the Troodos Ophiolite Complex in antiquity 20 The introduction of the oxhide ingots in Cyprus 25 Acknowledgements 27 Bibliography 27 3 A. Bernard Knapp: Metallurgical production and trade on Bronze Age Cyprus: views and variations 29 Production and Exchange: Chalcolithic and Prehistoric Bronze Age (PreBA) 29 Production and Exchange: Protohistoric Bronze Age (Pro BA) 32 Politiko-Phorades 33 Apliki-Karamallos 34 Discussion 37 Conclusions 38 Acknowledgements 38 Bibliography 39 4 Maria Rosaria Belgiorno, Daniela Ferro and David Richard Loepp: Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy 41 Introduction 41 Mineral resources of Pyrgos 42 Metallurgical evidence at Pyrgos-Mavrorachi 43 Bibliography 48 5 Alison South: Tinker, tailor, farmer, miner: metals in the Late Bronze Age economy at Kalavasos 50 Introduction 50 The site 50 Landscape and geology 52 Early and Middle Bronze Age 52 Late Bronze Age 52 Metal objects from Ayios Dhimitrios 52 Slag and other evidence for metalworking 54 Building IX: a coppersmith’s workshop? 54 Metal objects in tombs 56 Analyses 59 Discussion 60 Notes 61 Bibliography 61 6 Roger C. P. Doonan, Gerald Cadogan and David Sewell: Standing on ceremony: the metallurgical finds from Maroni-Vournes, Cyprus 63 Introduction 63 Maroni-Vournes: LC I–II 64 Maroni-Vournes: contexts of metallurgical assemblages 66 Vournes I (LC I) 66 Vournes II (LC IIA–B) 67 Vournes III (LC IIC) 68 Metallurgy at Maroni 69 Chemistry 69 Microstructure 69 Fuel 69 Discussion 70 Conclusion 71 Bibliography 71 7 Maria Iacovou: From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom. Copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of Paphos 73 Introduction: a living memory of mining history 73 Copper geography and the political structure of ancient Cyprus 73 Paphos: foundation horizon 76 Paphos: its natural anchorage 77 Late Bronze Age Mediterranean crisis – Late Cypriot urban climax 78 The LCIIC/IIIA model: (a) sanctuary, (b) port of export and (c) copper working 78 Locating the harbour of ancient Paphos 79 The copper sources of the Paphian region 79 A lost memory: alienation from the economic history of antiquity 79 Copper routes in the chora of Old and New Paphos 79 Economic decline in the district of Paphos 80 Copper slag in the sanctuary 81 Priest-kings: breaking with the tradition 81 Epilogue 82 Bibliography 82 8 Noël H. Gale and Zofia A. Stos-Gale: The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus and in the wider Mediterranean 85 Implications for lead isotope provenancing 85 Lead isotope analyses of Cypriot ores 86 The facts and the problems 86 Logical Problems 87 Lead isotope analyses applied to copper oxhide ingots 88 The size and position of the Apliki mine 90 Chronology of copper mining in the Apliki region 91 The nature of the Cypriot copper ores 91 The Secondary Enrichment Zone Hypothesis 93 Conclusions 94 Notes 94 Bibliography 94 9 Despina Pilides: ‘Reconstructing’ the Enkomi tombs (British excavations): an instructive exercise 98 Comparison with contemporary tombs from coastal sites 101 The North-West Coast 101 The South-West Coast 103 The South Coast 105 Conclusions 106 Notes 107 Bibliography 107 10 Vasiliki Kassianidou: Metallurgy and metalwork in Enkomi: the early phases 109 Introduction 109 A new project 110 The copper workshops of the ‘Fortress’ 111 Politiko Phorades and LC I smelting technology 115 Conclusions 119 Bibliography 119 11 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair: The Enkomi cup: niello versus kuwano 122 Introduction 122 What is niello? 123 Early scientifically identified niello 123 Black patinated alloys and theircharacteristics 125 The production technique of the Enkomi cup 126 Kuwano 129 Bibliography 129 12 George Papasavvas: Profusion of Cypriot copper abroad, dearth of bronzes at home: a paradox in Late Bronze Age Cyprus 132 Bibliography 141 13 Philip P. Betancourt: Cyprus and Crete: the transformation of the Minoan metalworking industry 144 Climate Change 145 Increase in Population 145 Increased interconnections with the East Mediterranean 145 Discussion 146 Conclusions 147 Bibliography 147 14 Nota Dimopoulou: Metallurgy and metalworking in the harbour town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas 150 Bibliography 156 15 Fulvia Lo Schiavo: Cyprus and Sardinia, beyond the oxhide ingots 157 Introduction 157 The point of view of Cyprus 157 In quest of a pattern 158 Not only oxhide ingots 159 1. Tools for working metal 159 2. Double-edged tools 159 3. Prestige objects 160 Cyprus and Sardinia: a comparison 160 Final remarks 162 Postscriptum (by Vassos Karageorghis) 163 A Nuragic vase found in Cyprus 163 Bibliography 163 16 Yannis Bassiakos and Thomas Tselios: On the cessation of local copper production in the Aegean in the 2nd millennium BC 166 Introduction 166 Copper and bronze working in the 2nd millennium Aegean 166 Archaeometallurgical aspects and observations 166 Analyses of objects and archaeological interpretation 171 Geological and metallogenic setting in the Aegean and Cyprus 172 Greek mainland and the Aegean islands 172 Cyprus 174 Discussion and concluding remarks 174 Bibliography 175 17 K. Aslıhan Yener: Late Bronze Age Alalakh and Cyprus: a relationship of metals? 177 Notes 182 Bibliography 182 18 Ella Dardaillon: The evidence for metallurgical workshops of the 2nd millennium in Ugarit 184 Installations and artefacts (Fig. 18.2) 184 Installations 184 Artefacts (Table 18.1) 184 Ingots 187 Smelting 188 Slag 188 Matte 188 Melting and recycling 188 Melting 188 Recycling 189 Precious metals 189 Discussion and conclusion 190 Smelting and melting 190 Recycling and symbolism 190 Conclusion 191 Notes 191 Bibliography 192 19 Carol Bell: The merchants of Ugarit: oligarchs of the Late Bronze Age trade in metals? 195 Note 201 Bibliography 201 20 Erez Ben-Yosef: A unique casting mould from the new excavations at Timna Site 30 (Israel): evidence of western influence? 203 Acknowledgements 210 Bibliography 210 21 Thomas E. Levy, Erez Ben-Yosef and Mohammad Najjar: New perspectives on Iron Age copper production and society in the Faynan region, Jordan 212 Introduction 212 Cyber-Archaeology Methods and ELRAP 213 The Iron Age system in Faynan: new sites, new data 214 Khirbat en-Nahas (KEN; 30.661394N, 35.392700E) 214 KEN Area A 215 KEN Area M 216 KEN Area F 219 KEN Area S 219 KEN Area R 219 KEN Area T 219 KEN Area W 219 Khirbat al-Jariya (KAJ; 30.70573N, 35.452106E) 221 The Ras-al Miyah Archaeological Complex 221 Khirbat al-Ghuweiba (KAG; 30.693455N, 35.47568E) 221 Wadi Fidan-40 (30.673926N, 35.381107E) 221 Wadi Fidan 4 Iron Age Tombs (30.671285N, 35.384405E) 222 Khirbat Hamra Ifdan (KHI; IA slag mound: 30.661394N, 35.392700E) 222 Rujm Harm Ifdan (RHI; Iron Age watchtower; 30.672203N, 35.390267E) 223 Wadi Jariya survey (30.710N, 35.456E, central location) 223 Wadi Fidan survey (30.669N, 38.389E, central location) 224 Faynan – Busayra Regional Archaeology Survey (FBRS) 224 Jabal al-Jariya mines (JAJ; 30.695°N, 35.430°E) 225 Chronological framework 225 Chaîne opératoire 225 Conclusion – technology and society in the Faynan region during the Iron Age 226 Acknowledgements 227 Bibliography 227 22 Thilo Rehren and Edgar B. Pusch: Alloying and resource management in New Kingdom Egypt: the bronze industry at Qantir – Pi-Ramesse and its relationship to Egyptian copper sources 230 Introduction 230 Alloying copper and tin 231 Microarchaeology of the crucibles 232 Interpretation 232 A hierarchy of copper systems in New Kingdom Egypt 233 Scrap copper 233 Mainstream Bronze 233 Special Project Copper 234 Discussion 234 Conclusion 235 Bibliography 236 23 Vincent C. Pigott: On ancient tin, its sources and trade: further comments 237 Introduction 237 Part I: The search for ancient tin across Southwest Asia 237 The recently discovered tin source at Deh Hosein, central western Iran 238 The Uluburun shipwreck, Turkey and the oxhide tin ingot enigma 239 Looking east: some comments on the coming of tin-bronze in Mesopotamia and Iran 240 Part II: Southeast Asia and the coming of tinbronze metallurgy – a study in controversy 241 Introduction 241 The Role of Geology 242 Jim Muhly and the two models 243 The two models – some further comments on their development over time 244 The ‘RETEM’ model 244 The Steppe-related tool kit 245 On experimentation and the development of copper-base metallurgy in the KWPV 245 Note 247 Bibliography 247 24 H. Alexander Veldhuijzen: Just a few rusty bits: the innovation of iron in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC 252 The Mediterranean world of iron 252 Introduction 252 The innovation and adaptation of iron 253 Literary evidence 253 Artefactual evidence 254 Production evidence from the early 1st millennium BC 255 Early smelting at Tell Hammeh 255 Early smithing at Beth-Shemesh 260 Conclusions 261 Acknowledgements 262 Bibliography 263 Plates 266 Preface (V. Kassianidou and G. Papasavvas) Reminiscences: working with Jim Muhly (R. Maddin) 1. Late Bronze Age copper production in Cyprus from a mining geologist's perspective (G. Constantinou) 2. Metallurgical production and trade on Bronze Age Cyprus: views and variations (A. B. Knapp) 3. Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy (M. R. Belgiorno, D. Ferro and D. R. Loepp) 4. Tinker, tailor, farmer, miner: metals in the Late Bronze Age economy at Kalavasos (A. K. South) 5. Standing on ceremony: the metallurgical finds from Maroni-Vournes, Cyprus (R. Doonan, G. Cadogan, and D. Sewell) 6. From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom. Copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of Paphos (M. Iacovou) 7. The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus and in the wider Mediterranean (N. H. Gale and Z. A. Stos-Gale) 8. ‘Reconstructing’ the Enkomi tombs (British excavations): an instructive exercise (D. Pilides) 9. Metallurgy and metalwork in Enkomi: the early phases (V. Kassianidou) 10. The Enkomi cup: niello versus kuwano (A. Giumlia-Mair) 11. Profusion of Cypriot copper abroad, dearth of bronzes at home: reflections on a paradox in Late Bronze Age Cyprus (G. Papasavvas) 12. Cyprus and Crete: the transformation of the Minoan metalworking industry (P. Betancourt) 13. Metallurgy and metalworking in the harbour town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas (N. Dimopoulou) 14. Cyprus and Sardinia, beyond the oxhide ingots (F. Lo Schiavo) 15. On the cessation of local copper production in the Aegean in the 2nd millennium BC (Y. Bassiakos and T. Tselios) 16. Late Bronze Age Alalakh and Cyprus: a relationship of metals? (A. K. Yener) 17. The evidence for metallurgical workshops of the 2nd millennium in Ugarit (E. Dardaillon) 18. The merchants of Ugarit: oligarchs of the Late Bronze Age trade in metals? (C. Bell) 19. A unique casting mould from the new excavations at Timna Site 30 (Israel): evidence of western influence? (E. Ben-Yosef) 20. New perspectives on Iron Age copper production and society in the Faynan region, Jordan (T. Levy, E. Ben-Yosef and M. Najjar) 21. Alloying and resource management in New Kingdom Egypt: the bronze industry at Qantir – Pi-Ramesse and its relationship to Egyptian copper sources (T. Rehren and E. B. Pusch) 22. On ancient tin, its sources and trade: further comments (V. C. Pigott) 23. Just a few rusty bits: the innovation of iron in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC (H. A. Veldhuijzen) Reminiscences: working with Jim Muhly / R. Maddin Late bronze age copper production in Cyprus from a mining geologists perspective / G. Constantinou Metallurgical production and trade on bronze age Cyprus: views and variations / A. B. Knapp Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy / M. R. Belgiorno, D. Ferro and D. R. Loepp Tinker, tailor, farmer, miner: metals in the late bronze age economy at Kalavasos / A. K. South Standing on ceremony: the metallurgical finds from Maroni-Vournes, Cyprus / R. Doonan, G. Cadogan, and D. Sewell From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom: copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of paphos / M. Iacovou The role of the apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 bc copper production and trade networks in Cyprus And in the wider Mediterranean / N. H. Gale and Z. A. Stos-Gale "Reconstructing" the Enkomi Tombs (British excavations): an instructive exercise / D. Pilides Metallurgy and metalwork in Enkomi: the early phases / V. Kassianidou The Enkomi cup: Niello versus Kuwano / A. Giumlia-Mair Profusion of Cypriot copper abroad, dearth of bronzes at home: a paradox in late bronze age cyprus / G. Papasavvas VI Cyprus and crete: the transformation of the minoan metalworking industry / P. Betancourt Metallurgy and metalworking in the harbour town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas / N. Dimopoulou Cyprus and Sardinia, beyond the oxhide ingots / F. Lo Schiavo On the cessation of local copper production in the Aegean in the 2nd millennium BC / Y. Bassiakos and T. Tselios Late bronze age Alalakh and Cyprus: a relationship of metals? / A. K. Yener The evidence for metallurgical workshops of the 2nd millennium in Ugarit / E. Dardaillon The merchants of Ugarit: oligarchs of the late bronze age trade in metals? / C. Bell A unique casting mould from the new excavations at Timna Site 30 (Israel): evidence of western influence? / E. Ben-Yosef New perspectives on iron age copper production and society in the Faynan Region, Jordan / T. Levy, E. Ben-Yosef and M. Najjar Alloying and resource management in New Kingdom Egypt: the bronze industry at Qantir Pi-Ramesse and its relationship to Egyptian copper sources / T. Rehren and E. B. Pusch On ancient tin, its sources and trade: further comments / V. C. Pigott Just a few rusty bits: the innovation of iron in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC 237 / H. A. Veldhuijzen.