Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3 : The Western Ch’in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandhāra

Contents 7 Preface 19 Acknowledgements 21 List of Illustrations 23 List of Maps and Note on Diacriticals 57 Introduction 59 Chapter One The Western Ch’in (385-431 A.D.): History and Buddhism 65 I. The Ch’i-fu Clan and the Western Ch’in (385-431 A.D.) 66 A. Ch’i-fu Kuo-jen (r. 385-387/388): Beginning of the Western Ch’in Kingdom 66 B. Ch’i-fu Ch’ien-kuei (r. 388-412): Expansion of the Western Ch’in 67 C. Ch’i-fu Chih-p’an (r. 412-427): Consolidation and Height of the Western Ch’in 70 D. Ch’i-fu Mu-mo (r. 427-431): Demise of the Western Ch’in 72 II. Buddhist Activities in the Western Ch’in from Written Records 74 A. Sheng-chien: Buddhist Monk Translator 74 B. Fa-hsien: Early Monk Traveler to the Western Regions 77 C. Hsuan-kao: Famous Meditation Monk 79 D. Hui-lan: Later Monk Traveler to the Western Regions 84 E. Concluding Comments 86 Chapter Two Bronze Buddha Altar from Ching-Ch’uan 87 I. Introduction 87 II. Technical and Stylistic Description and Comparative Analysis 88 A. Buddha Image 89 B. Lion Throne 94 C. Mandorla 96 D. Canopy 98 E. Four-footed Stand 99 III. Conclusions of Dating and Region of Make from the Technical and Stylistic Analysis 101 IV. The “Kuei-i-hou yin” Bronze Seal and the Date of the Burial 102 Chapter Three Ping-Ling SSU Stone Caves: Introduction and Niche No. 1 107 I. Introduction 107 II. Niche No.1: Monumental Buddha Statue 112 A. Description and Technical, Stylistic and Comparative Analysis 113 1. Technique 113 2. Posture and Hand Positions 113 3. Body Form 114 4. Drapery 115 5. Head 117 6. Wall Paintings 119 III. Conclusions and Significance Regarding the Niche No.1 Buddha 119 A. Dating and Sources of Style 119 B. Oldest Surviving Monumental Buddha Image in China 120 C. Possible King Asoka Buddha Image and Relation to Eastern Chin in the South 121 D. Relation with the Bamiyan East Great Buddha 121 Chapter Four Ping-Ling SSU Cave 169: West (Rear) Wall 125 I. Introduction to Cave 169 125 II. West Wall (upper part) 126 A. Group 18: Description, Dating and Stylistic Sources 127 1. Group 18: Large Standing Central Buddha 129 a. Proportions and Posture, Body Form and Head 129 b. Drapery 130 c. Mandorla and Pedestal 132 d. Conclusions 133 2. Group 18: Ten Dhyanasana Buddhas 134 B. Group 18: Iconography of the Large Standing Buddha with Ten Dhyanasana Buddhas 135 1. Group 18 Schema 135 2. Buddhas of the Ten-Directions in Early Mahayana Sutras 136 3. Group 18 as Representing Sakyamuni and the Ten-Direction Buddhas from Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua ching, Dharmaraksa’s 286 A.D. Translation of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra) 143 a. Translation of Excerpts from Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua ching, the Dharmaraksa 286 A.D. 144 b. Application of Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua ching (Dharamraksa Translation of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra) to the Cave 169 Group 18 Sculptures 151 c. Comment on the identity of the Group 18 configuration 155 C. Conclusions of Dating and Iconography 156 III. West Wall (lower part) 158 A. Group 17: Triad with Surviving Standing Bodhisattva 158 1. Description, Sources and Dating of the Standing Bodhisattva 159 2. Iconographic Considerations and Conclusions 162 B. Group 16 163 1. Group 16: Five Dhyanasna Buddhas 164 2. Group 16: Seated Bodhisattva with One Leg Pendant 166 3. Group 16: Two (of Three) Standing Buddhas 169 C. Concluding Remarks 172 Chapter Five Ping-Ling SSU Cave 169: East and South Walls 175 I. East (Entrance) Wall: Group 24 175 A. Description, Comparative Analysis, and Stylistic Sources 175 1. Thousand Buddha Painting 176 2. Individual Buddha Groups Within the Thousand Buddha Painting 177 a. Dhyanasana Buddha Triad with Two Monks 177 b. Teaching Buddha Triad 178 c. Sakyamuni and Prabhutaratna in the Seven Jewel Stupa 181 3. Summary Conclusions 183 B. Dedicatory Inscription, Biography of Tao-jung, and Dating of the Group 24 Painting 183 C. Iconography: Textual Considerations 188 D. Conclusions: Dating and Issues of Identification 192 II. South (Left) Wall 196 A. Upper Zone: Group 23 196 1. Large Stone Relief Seated Buddha 196 2. Row of Painted Stupas 198 3. Group 23: “Ping-shen” Inscription 201 4. Group 23: Five Dhyanasana Buddha Sculptures 203 a. Three Dhyanasana Buddhas on the Left (east) Side 204 i. Brief Description 204 ii. Stylistic Sources and Tentative Dating 205 iii. Relation with West Wall Sculptures in Cave 169 207 iv. Mandorlas 208 b. Two dhyanasana Buddhas on the Right (west) Side 209 i. Description 209 ii. Elements for Comparative Dating of the Two Buddhas 210 iii. Mandorlas 211 5. Conclusions 212 B. Middle Zone: Groups 22 and 21 213 1. Group 22: Standing Buddha Triad 213 a. Buddha 213 b. Bodhisattva 216 c. Conclusions 218 2. Group 21: Two Individual Dhyanasana Buddhas 219 C. Lower Zone: Group 20 219 1. Group 20: Seated Buddha (A) 220 2. Group 20: Seated Buddha (B) 221 3. Group 20: Seated Ascetic Buddha (C) 222 4. Group 20: Standing Buddha (D) 223 5. Group 20: Seated Buddha (E) 223 6. Group 20: Dating 224 7. Iconographic Considerations: More on the Five Buddhas 224 D. Summary Conclusions (South Wall) 225 Chapter Six Cave 169: North Wall (I) 227 I. North (Right) Wall: Upper Zone 227 A. Group 1 227 B. Group 2 229 C. Group 4 229 II. North Wall: Middle Zone 231 A. Group 6: Niche with Amitayus Sculpture Triad 231 1. Image Analysis 233 a. Buddha Amitayus 233 b. Mandorla of Amitayus 236 c. Attendant Bodhisattvas 239 2. Textual Considerations 241 a. Early texts: Later Han, Three Kingdoms and Western Chin Period 242 1) Pratyutpanna-samadhi Sutra (T 418) 243 2) [Larger] Sukhavativyuha Sutra 247 a) A-mi-t’o san-yeh san fo sa lou fo t’an kuo tu jen tao ching 248 b) Wu-liang-ch’ing-ching p’ing-teng-chueh ching (T 361) 250 c) Wu-liang-shou [fo] ching (T 360) 253 i. Chu Fa-hu theory 253 ii. Buddhabhadra and/or Pao-yun theory 256 iii. Terminology of the Wu-liang-shou ching 259 d) Brief Synopsis and Some Pertinent Factors in the Wu-liang-shou ching with Respect to Considerations of the Group 6 Niche 259 i. Summary of the Text Wu-liang-shou ching (T 360): chuan 1 (shang) 260 ii. Summary of the Text Wu-liang-shou ching (T 360): chuan 2 (hsia) 261 3) Mahalalitapariprccha Sutra 263 a) Lao nü jen ching 263 b) Fo-shuo lao mu ching 263 c) Lao mu nu liu ying ching 263 4) Vimalakirti-nirdesa 264 a) Wei-mo chieh ching 264 b) Wei mo chieh so shuo ching 264 5) Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra) 265 a) Cheng fa-hua ching 265 b) Miao fa lien hua ching 265 6) Brahmavisesacintipariprccha Sutra (Questions of Brahma Sutra) 267 a) Ch’ih hsin fan-t’ien so wen ching 267 b) Ssu i fan t’ien so wen ching 267 7) Bhadrakalpika Sutra 267 b. Eulogies, Images, and Biographies from the South during the Eastern Chin (317-420) 268 8) Eulogy (tsan) on Amitabha by Chih-tun 268 9) Biography of Chu Fa-k’uang 269 10) Images by Tai K’uei 271 11) Biographical excerpts of Hui-yuan, Seng-chi and other monks at Lu shan 271 c. Period ca. 400-425 A.D. in North and South China 273 12) Fo-shuo A-mi-t’o ching 273 13) Ta chih-tu lun 274 14) Kuan fo san-mei hai ching 274 15) Ta-fang kuang fo hua-yen ching 275 16) Kuan-shih-yin p’u-sa [Te-ta-shih p’u-sa] shou chi ching] 275 a) Biography of T’an-wu-chieh 276 b) Summary Synopsis of the Kuan-shih-yin shou chi ching ( T371) Translated by T’an-wu-chieh 279 c) Some Major Points Concerning the Kuan-shih-yin shou-chi ching 282 d) Questions of Terminology in Relation to Group 6 283 17) Kuan Wu-liang-shou [fo] ching 284 a) Translation of the Kao-seng chuan Biography of Kalayasas 284 b) Brief Synopsis and Some Pertinent Points Regarding Terminology 286 c) Textual Issues 288 i) Central Asian Origination (or Compilation) 289 ii) Chinese “Compilation” 290 d) Terminology Used in the Kuan ching and Cave 169 Group 6 Inscriptions 290 d. Summary and Conclusions Regarding the Textual Comparisons and Survey of the Amitabha/Amitayus Sutra Translations in China up to ca. 425 A.D. with Respect to the Group 6 Inscriptions 291 3. Amitabha/Amitayus and Sukhavati in the Art of Mathura and Gandhara Prior to the Mid-5th century A.D. 296 a. Mathura Inscribed Amitabha Buddha 296 b. Triads of a Seated Buddha with Two Standing Bodhisattvas 300 i. Mathura and Gandhara 300 c. Triads within Complex Stele Scenes 305 i. Mohammad Nari (larger) Stele: Problems of Identification 306 ii. A stele in the Peshawar Museum: Possible Sukhavati with Amitabha and the Two Great Bodhisattvas 307 d. Afghanistan, Central Asia and South India 311 4. Summary Conclusions Regarding the Iconography of the Group 6 Amitayus Triad 312 Chapter Seven Ping-Ling SSU Cave 169: North Wall (II) 315 I. North Wall: Middle Zone (continued) 315 A. Group 6: Wall Paintings and Inscriptions 315 1. Wall Paintings Inside the Group 6 Niche 315 a. Ten-direction Buddhas 316 i. Discussion of the style 316 ii. Identification of the ten Buddhas 317 iii. Buddhabhadra and the Translation of the 60-chuan Hua-yen ching 320 a) Early Records of the Buddhabhadra Translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra 320 b) Translation of the Kao-seng chuan Biography of Buddhabhadra 322 c) Buddhabhadra’s Translation of the Hua-yen ching and the Paintings of the Ten-Direction Buddhas in Group 6 327 b. Other Images near the Ten-Direction Buddhas 327 i. A Guardian and an Offering Figure 327 ii. Sakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya Bodhisattva 328 iii. Stylistic and Iconographic Considerations in the Context of the Group 6 Niche 330 2. Group 6: Main Inscription and Surrounding Wall Paintings 332 a. Main Inscription 332 i. Description and Translation 332 ii. Regarding the 420/424 Date Issue 334 b. Donor Figures 334 i. First Row of Donors 335 ii. Second Row of Donors 338 iii. Row of Eight Donors inside the Niche 339 c. Other Figures and Inscriptions above the Main Inscription 341 i. Small Standing Monk 341 ii. “Yao-wang fo” 341 a) Textual Considerations 341 b) Concluding Remarks Regarding “Yao-wang fo” 345 iii. ? ? chih p’u-sa 345 iv. Chieh-yin fo 345 v. Ch’ing-hsin shih Chin ch’eng Wan Wen chih hsiang 347 vi. Ch’ing-hsin nu Wen ch’i 347 d. Images and inscriptions below the second row of donors 347 i. Standing Buddha 348 ii. male donor “Ch’i-fu ? Lo-shih chih hsiang” 348 3. Group 6: Summations and Conclusions 348 a. Inscriptions 348 i. Main Inscription 348 ii. Monk and Lay Donor Inscriptions 349 a) Monk Donors 349 b) Lay Donors 350 b. Artistic Elements 352 i. Sculpture 352 ii. Paintings 353 c. Iconography and Textual Sources 354 i. Amitayus Triad 354 ii. Paintings Inside the Niche (other than donors) 355 iii. Paintings of Iconic Images Outside the Niche (other than donors) 356 a) Yao-wang fo 357 b) Chieh-yin fo and ? ? chih p’u-sa 357 d. Textual Aspects and the Iconographic Program of Group 6 358 e. Significance Points with Respect to Cave 169 360 B. Group 7: Two Large Standing Buddha Sculptures 362 1. Image Analysis 362 2. Mandorlas 365 3. Comments on Dating 366 II. North Wall: Lower Zone 367 A. Group 9: Three Standing Buddha Sculptures 367 B. Group 10: Wall Paintings (far left) 370 1. Under Layer 370 2. Upper Layer 371 C. Group 11: Wall Paintings (center left) 371 1. Topmost Level 372 2. Second Level from the Top 372 3. Third Level from the Top 375 4. Lowest Level 376 D. Group 12: Wall Paintings (center right) 377 1. Main Seated Buddha 377 2. Buddha’s Attendants and Kneeling Brahmin-like Figure 378 3. Above the Buddha Group: Buddhas, Donors and a Five Buddha Painting 379 4. Summary of the Five Buddha Configurations in Ping-ling ssu Cave 169 384 5. Other representations of the Five Buddhas in China prior to ca. 400 385 E. Group 13: Wall Paintings (far right) 386 F. Conclusions: Wall Paintings of Groups 11,12 and 13 387 1. Artistic Style and Dating 387 2. Iconographic Considerations 388 3. Donor and Other Figures 389 G. Group 14 389 1. Row of Three Seated Buddha Sculptures 389 2. Sutra Writing and Wall Paintings 391 a. Translation of the Wei-ts’eng-yu ching (T 688) 392 b. Wall Paintings 395 3. Fragment of Large Standing Buddha Sculpture 395 4. Concluding Comments on Group 14 396 H. Group 3: Buddha Niche 396 I. Groups 15 and 19: Thousand Buddha Panel Paintings 399 II. Conclusions: North Wall 401 III. The Cave at Yeh-chi kou (Wild Pheasant Gulch) 402 IV. Summary Conclusions: Ping-ling ssu under the Western Ch’in 403 A. Earliest Period: ca. 375-ca. 400 403 B. Middle Period: ca. 400-420 405 C. Late Period: ca. 420–431 406 Chapter Eight The Five Buddhas and Sets of Multiple Buddhas in the Art of Gandhara and Afghanistan and their Relation to Cave 169 at Ping-Ling ssu and the Five T’an-Yao Caves at Yun-Kang 413 I. Introduction 413 II. Taxila (Gandhara) 416 A. Dharmarajika: Stupas K1, N4 (and J1) 417 B. Main stupas at Jaulian and Mohra Moradu 422 1. Jaulian 422 a. Layout and Scheme of Main Images 423 b. Small Pilaster Buddhas 426 2. Mohra Moradu 428 a. Stupa Drum/Dome 429 b. Podium Images 431 3. Dating 432 a. Sculptures of the Jaulian Main Stupa 432 b. Sculptures at Mohra Moradu 434 4. Conclusions: Jaulian and Mohra Moradu Main Stupas 436 C. Miniature and Subsidiary Stupas at Mohra Moradu and Jaulian 436 1. Stucco Stupa from Cell 9 at Mohra Moradu 437 2. Subsidiary Stupas at Jaulian 441 a. Stupa A15 441 i. Description and Discussion of the Iconography of the Images 442 ii. Iconographic Interpretation 443 iii. Technique, Inscriptions and Dating of the Images 445 b. Stupa A11 448 i. Iconography 449 ii. Date 450 c. Stupas A2, A20 and D5 450 d. Stupas A16, D4 and D1 453 i. Stupa A16 453 ii. Stupas D4 and D1 454 iii. Style and Date of Stupas D4 and D1 457 a) Niches 457 b) Pilasters 457 c) Lotus Pedestals 458 d) Individual Images 458 iv. Conclusions and Iconography of Stupas D4 and D1 458 3. Further Comments on Jaulian and Mohra Moradu 460 D. Pippala: Stupa K 461 III. Peshawar Valley (Gandhara) 462 A. Thareli: Area C 106 462 1. Area C106: Data 463 2. Dating 464 3. Iconographic Considerations of Area C106 464 B. Takht-i-Bahi 465 1. South Stupa Court X 466 2. Niche-shrines in the Lower Stupa Court 467 a. Niche/shrines 1-9 on the Processional Path 467 b. Niche/shrines 24-18 along the South Wall of the Lower Stupa Court 468 c. Niche/shrines 25-28 on the North Wall of the Lower Stupa Court 468 d. Niche/shrines 29-37 on the North Wall of the Lower Stupa Court 468 e. Niche/shrines M8-M1 along the East and South Walls of the Lower Stupa Court 468 f. Niche/shrines M14 and M11 469 g. Niches on the Perimeter of the Lower Stupa Court Considered as a Totality 469 3. Southeast Stupa Court XIVii 469 4. Court XX (Court of the Three Stupas) 471 a. Stupa P37 472 b. Four Monumental Stucco Standing Buddhas 474 5. Conclusions: Takht-i-Bahi 474 C. Sahri Bahlol Site B 475 1. Stupa with Five Buddhas 475 2. “Main Stone Stupa” with Four Buddhas 476 D. Ali Masjid 484 1. Medium-sized Stupa 484 2. Stupa No. 6 486 E. Conclusions: Peshawar Valley 488 IV. Afghanistan: Hadda 489 A. Great Stupa (TTK) 490 B. Tapa Kalan 492 1. Stupa TK67 492 2. Stupa TK86 493 3. Stupas TK97 and TK100 493 C. Tapa-i-Kafariha 494 1. Stupa K43 494 2. Gallery K45 495 D. Bagh-Gai 496 1. Stupa B31 497 2. Stupa B51 498 3. Structure B56 and Stupa B55 500 4. Stupas B76 and B77 503 E. Chakhil-i-Ghoundi 504 1. Stupa C5 504 F. Prates 505 1. Stupa P8 505 2. Stupa P29 506 G. Gar-nao 506 H. Concluding Comments: Hadda 507 V. Afghanistan: Shotorak 509 A. Stupa D3 509 B. Stupa D4 510 VI. Afghanistan: Bamiyan 511 A. Cave 24 512 B. Cave 129 512 C. Cave 152 513 D. Cave 164 513 E. Cave 51 513 VII. Summary Conclusions 514 A. Sets of Multiple Buddhas in Gandhara and Afghanistan 514 B. Significant Factors Regarding the Reading of Images on Stupas 515 1. Unified Scheme 516 2. Individual Side Scheme 516 3. Chronologically Linear Presentation 516 4. Non-chronologically Linear Presentation 517 5. Spatial Interpretation 518 C. Summary of the Development of the Five Buddha Configurations in Gandhara and Afghanistan 519 D. Importance of Ping-ling ssu Cave 169 in Relation to the Five Buddha Iconography 522 1. Relation with Gandhara and Afghanistan 523 2. In China 524 VIII. The Five T’an-yao Colossal Image Caves at Yun-kang 525 A. Layout and Brief Description of the Five T’an-yao Caves 526 B. New Theory of the System of Arrangement and Identity of the Main Images of the Five T’an-yao Caves 531 Chapter Nine Mai-Chi Shan: Early Caves 539 I. Introduction 539 II. Early History of the Site 540 III. Caves 78 and 74 542 A. General Description and Layout 542 1. Cave 78 542 2. Cave 74 544 B. Image Style, Sources and Dating 545 1. Seated Buddhas 545 2. Standing Bodhisattvas 548 3. Mandorla and Halo Designs 549 4. Paintings on the Pedestal of the Main Buddha in Cave 78 550 5. Small Niches with the Cross-ankled and Contemplative Bodhisattvas 552 6. Dating of Caves 78 and 74 553 C. Iconographic Considerations 554 IV. Caves 169 and 69 558 A. Cave 169 559 B. Cave 69 562 V. Conclusions: Early Caves at Mai-chi shan 562 Conclusions: Volume III 565 Appendix I 571 Appendix II 573 Bibliography 577 Index 593 Color Plates 603 This book, third in a series on the early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia, centers on Buddhist art from the Western Ch'in (385-431 A.D.) in eastern Kansu (northwest China), primarily from the cave temples of Ping-ling ssu and Mai-chi shan. A detailed chronological and iconographic study of sculptures and wall paintings in Cave 169 at Ping-ling ssu particularly yields a chronological framework for unlocking the difficult issues of dating early fifth century Chinese Buddhist art, and offers some new insights into textual sources in the Lotus, Hua-yen and Amitabha sutras. Further, this study introduces the iconographpy of the five Buddhas and its relation to the art of Gandhara and the famous five colossal T'an-yao caves at Yün-kang.