E-LEARNING AND THE SCIENCE OF INSTRUCTION, FIFTH E DITION : proven guidelines for consumers and... design ers of multimedia learning

Improve the quality of your eLearning materials with evidence-based guidelines e-Learning and the Science of Instruction, 5th Edition: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning helps practitioners apply evidence-based principles to the design, development, and selection of digital instructional and training materials. This book goes beyond instructional design advice, providing actionable ideas and multimedia examples based on recent research findings. You will learn how to put evidence into practice, with proven e-learning design and development guidelines. During the pandemic, e-learning assumed a much greater role as an instructional delivery medium, especially with virtual classrooms using tools such as Zoom and MS Teams. The combination of new technological functionality, increases in a remote workforce, and new research findings have led to gaps regarding how to leverage digital learning most effectively. This book explains what instructional designers, multimedia developers, and e-learning consumers need to know to maximize the potential of their e-learning resources. In addition to guidelines regarding use of graphics, audio, text, engagement techniques and collaborative online learning, this new edition covers video-based instruction, digital games, and immersive virtual reality-, showing you when and how to utilize these tools effectively. Discover the latest research findings about how people learn―and how they learn best online Build instructional materials, including video instruction, digital games, and immersive VR experiences, that empower learners to succeed Get ideas and inspiration for engaging learners in synchronous and asynchronous environments See concrete examples of how research evidence in instructional design can be applied in practice Apply evidence regarding how best to leverage collaborative online learning e-Learning and the Science of Instruction is a valuable resource for students and practitioners who need to design, develop, and select effective eLearning and virtual training materials. Cover Page Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Part 1 Foundations of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction Chapter 1 e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls What Is e-Learning? Synchronous and Asynchronous e-Learning Six e-Learning Formats The Evolution of e-Learning for Training Is e-Learning Better? The Promise of e-Learning Promise 1: Rich Multimedia Promise 2: Customization Promise 3: Engagement and Feedback Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios Promise 5: Collaborative Learning The Pitfalls of e-Learning Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good Thing Pitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good Thing Pitfall 3: Misplaced Training Pitfall 4: Technology Fads e-Learning Architectures Twenty Years Later Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 2 How People Learn from e-Courses How Do People Learn? Taking a Learner-Centered Approach to Learning with Technology What Is Learning and Instruction? Three Metaphors for Learning Principles and Processes of Learning Guiding the Learner’s Cognitive Processing During Learning Selecting Information Organizing Information Integrating Information Core Goals for Instructional Design in e-Learning Minimize Extraneous Processing Manage Essential Processing Foster Generative Processing How e-Lessons Affect Learning Methods for Helping Learners Focus on Important Information During e-Learning Methods for Helping Learners Cope with Limited Capacity in Working Memory Methods for Helping Learners Make Sense of the Presented Material Methods for Helping Learners Develop Positive Feelings and Social Connections Methods for Helping Learners Prepare for Retrieval and Transfer Summary of Learning Processes What We Don’t Know About Learning Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 3 Evidence-Based Practice What Is Evidence-Based Practice? Rationale for Evidence-Based Practice Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons Random Assignment Experimental Control Appropriate Measures Supplemental Criteria What Are Boundary Conditions? What Is a Meta-Analysis? Limits of Experimental Research Where Can You Find Relevant Research? The Evolution of Evidence-Based Practice What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Part 2 How to Leverage Visuals and Words in e-Learning Chapter 4 Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather than Words Alone Do Visuals Make a Difference? Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics Why Use Words and Graphics? Select Graphics that Support Learning Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning Graphics as Content Organizers Graphics to Show Quantitative Relationships Graphics as Lesson Interfaces Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle Evidence for Using Words and Pictures The Multimedia Principle Is Resilient Learners Often Misjudge the Value of Graphics The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? When to Use Animations Use Animations to Illustrate Complex Visual Changes Use Animations to Demonstrate Hands-On Procedures Use Animations as Interpretive Graphics Animations: The Bottom Line How to Optimize Learning from Graphics Lesson-Focused Methods Learner-Focused Methods What We Don’t Know About Visuals Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 5 Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place Printed Words near Corresponding Graphics Violations of Spatial Contiguity Placing Text Caption Below Corresponding Graphic Placing a Legend Under or to the Side of Corresponding Chart Separating Text and Graphic on Scrolling Screens Displaying Feedback on a Separate Screen from Questions or Responses Displaying Linked Windows on Top of Corresponding Content Displaying Exercise Directions Separate from the Exercise Displaying Text in a Separate Window with Animations or Video Psychological Reasons for the Spatial Contiguity Principle Evidence for the Spatial Contiguity Principle Meta-Analytic Evidence Eye Tracking Evidence Boundary Conditions for Spatial Contiguity Spatial Contiguity and Visual Cues Promoting Spatial Contiguity with Augmented Reality Temporal Contiguity Principle: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics Separating Graphics and Narration Through Icons Separating Graphics and Narration in a Continuous Presentation Psychological Reasons for the Temporal Contiguity Principle Evidence for the Temporal Contiguity Principle Core Evidence Boundary Conditions for Temporal Contiguity Exceptions to Temporal Contiguity What We Don’t Know About Contiguity Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 6 Applying the Signaling Principle: Use Verbal and Visual Cues to Direct Attention What Is Signaling? How Does Signaling Work? Eye Tracking and Attention Evidence for the Benefits of Signaling Principle 1: Use Text Summaries and Headers to Signal Learning Content Principle 2: Use Text Phrases to Explicitly Direct Attention to Relevant Content Principle 3: Use Emphasis Cues Such as Color and Intonation Principle 4: Use Graphic Cues Such as Arrows and Pointers Principle 5: Use Anti-Cueing in Animations to Signal Less Salient Visual Elements in Animations Signaling: The Bottom Line What We Don’t Know About Signaling Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 7 Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text Evidence from a Naturalistic Setting Eye Tracking Evidence Meta-Analytic Evidence When Audio Is Not Effective: Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle Use Printed Text for Second-Language Learners Use Printed Text When Explanations Are Lengthy and Complex Use Printed Text When the Instruction Is Self-Paced Use Printed Text for Recognition or Recall Learning Rather Than Transfer Use Printed Text When Learners Need Access to Content over Time Summary of Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle What We Don’t Know About Modality Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 8 When to Add Text to Audio Narration: Applying the Redundancy Principle What Is the Redundancy Principle? Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text Add On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations Add On-Screen Text for Learning in a Second Language or When Words Are Unfamiliar Add On-Screen Text That Includes Only a Few Key Words from the Audio Narration Add On-Screen Text When Learners Have Plenty of Cognitive Resources Available Add On-Screen Text When There Are No Graphics The Bottom Line What We Don’t Know About Redundancy Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 9 Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest Meta-Analytic Evidence Boundary Conditions for Seductive Details Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals Can Interesting Graphics Ever Be Helpful? Guidelines for Emotional Design What Is Emotional Design? Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio Evidence Against Background Music Evidence Against Environmental Sounds What We Don’t Know About Coherence Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Part 3 How to Promote Skill Building in e-Learning Chapter 10 Engagement in e-Learning: Activities for Promoting Generative Learning What Is Engagement? Engagement and Generative Processing Behavioral Versus Psychological Engagement When Behavioral Engagement Impedes Learning When an Activity Imposes Too Much Extraneous Mental Load When an Activity Results in Inaccurate Learner Representations When an Activity Promotes Shallow Processing of Lesson Content Three Engagement Activities That Can Promote Generative Processing Self-Explanation Assignments Teach-Back Assignments Drawing Assignments The Bottom Line to Engagement in e-Learning What We Don’t Know About Generative Learning Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 11 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning What Is Example-Based Instruction? Examples for Procedural and Strategic Tasks Modeling Examples for Procedural and Strategic Skills The Psychology of Example-Based Instruction Evidence for the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction How to Optimize the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction Principle 1: Provide at Least Two Examples When the Lesson Content Is Complex Principle 2: Promote Accurate Self-Explanations Principle 3: Fade from Examples to Problems as Expertise Builds Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples Principle 5: Consider Using Video Examples for Complex Tasks Principle 6: Optimize Example-Based Instruction for Strategic Tasks What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 12 Does Practice Make Perfect? What Is Practice in e-Learning? Formats of e-Learning Practice Is Practice a Good Investment? Meta-Analysis of Multimedia Practice Practice Among Elite Performers Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to Achieve the Objective The Benefits of Practice Adjust the Amount of Practice Based on Task Criticality Principle 2: Make Sure Practice Mirrors the Job Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback on Practice Performance Provide Explanatory Feedback Evidence for Benefits of Explanatory Feedback Emphasize Three Categories of Explanatory Feedback Written Versus Audio Versus Video Feedback Should Feedback Be Immediate or Delayed? Create Multiple-Try Feedback That Promotes Generative Processing Tips for Implementing Feedback Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events Distribute Practice Throughout the Learning Environment Mix Practice Types in Lessons Tips for Determining the Number and Placement of Practice Events Principle 5: Arrange Practice That Increases in Challenge as Learners Progress Principle 6: Provide Scaffolding to Support Guided Practice When Needed Principle 7: Apply Multimedia Principles in Designing Feedback Modality and Redundancy Principles Contiguity Principle Coherence Principle Tips for Applying the Multimedia Principles to Your Interactions What We Don’t Know About Practice Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Part 4 How to Organize Content in e-Learning Chapter 13 Organizing Instruction: Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles What Is the Segmenting Principle? Segmenting a Continuous Presentation into Learner-Paced Parts Segmenting with Slide Overlays Segmenting with Briefer Audio Segmenting in Instructor-Paced e-Learning Segmenting in Video and Animated Self-Study Lessons What Is the Pretraining Principle? Pretraining for a Continuous Animation, Video, or Slide Show Pretraining in Immersive Learning Environments Use Pretraining for Software Interface Orientations Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle Should You Initiate a Lesson with a Problem Assignment? Managing Essential Overload What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 14 Who’s in Control?: Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation Learner Control Versus Program Control Three Categories of Learner Control Tradeoffs to Learner Control Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? Calibration Accuracy: Do You Know What You Think You Know? How Does Calibration Affect Learning? How Common Is Overconfidence Among Learners? Do Learners Like Instructional Methods That Lead to Learning? The Psychology of Learner Decisions Learner Control and Metacognitive Accuracy Four Principles for Learner Control in e-Learning Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default Principle 3: Give Pacing Control to All Learners Principle 4: Provide Guidance in Open-Ended e-Learning Environments The Bottom Line What We Don’t Know About Learner Control Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Part 5 How to Leverage Social Cues in e-Learning Chapter 15 Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Friendly Voice, On-Screen Agents, and Social Presence in e-Learning Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle Evidence for Using a Conversational Style Personalization Principle 2: Use Polite Wording Evidence for Use of Polite Language Personalization Principle 3: Use a Friendly Human Voice Quality for Narrations Evidence for the Use of Friendly Human Voice Can On-Screen Agents Promote Learning in Asynchronous e-Learning? What Are Pedagogical Agents? The Psychology of Pedagogical Agents Can Agents Promote Learning? What Actions Should Agents Perform? Do Agents Need to Look Real? Do Agents Need to Sound Real? How Can Instructors in Video Lessons Leverage Personalization? What We Don’t Know About Personalization Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 16 Online Collaborative Learning What Is Collaborative Learning? The Psychology of Collaborative Learning What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? Principle 1: Design Tasks and Team Assignments to Foster Interdependence Assign Complex Tasks Promote Diverse Relevant Expertise Among Team Members Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Prior Knowledge, and Collaboration Experience Principle 3: Consider Tradeoffs Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Collaboration Principle 4: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments Principle 5: Use Scripts to Optimize Team Outcomes Structured Controversy What We Don’t Know About Online Collaborative Learning Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Part 6 Special Applications of e-Learning Chapter 17 e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills What Are Thinking Skills? What to Teach: Focused Target Skills Versus Improving the Mind in General Where to Teach: Domain-General Versus Domain-Specific Thinking Skills How to Teach: Expert Modeling with Learner Practice Versus Direct Instruction Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? Principle 1: Build Explicit Instruction to Teach Specific Job-Relevant Thinking Skills Display Expert Thinking Models Signal Behaviors of Expert Models to Focus Learner Attention Promote Active Engagement with Expert Models Principle 2: Incorporate Online Simulations of Authentic Work Scenarios Are Simulations Effective for Building Thinking Skills? Which Features Make Simulations Effective for Learning? Are Scaffolds Needed in Simulations? Cost-Benefit Analysis of Simulations Principle 3: Identify Job-Specific Thinking Processes Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 18 Designing Effective Instructional Video The Challenge of Instructional Video Historical Foundations of Instructional Video Uses of Instructional Video Principle 1: Record a Demonstration Video from a First-Person Perspective Principle 2: Have the Instructor Draw on the Board While Lecturing Principle 3: Embed Generative Activities During Breaks in the Video Principle 4: Add Subtitles for Learning in a Second Language Principle 5: Have the Instructor Exhibit Positive Voice and Gestures Principle 6: Have the Instructor Use Pointing and Eye Gaze to Direct Attention Principle 7: Avoid Overuse of Talking Heads or Static Instructor Images Principle 8: Apply Multimedia Design Principles What We Don’t Know About Instructional Video Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 19 Learning with Computer Games Do Games Have a Place in the Serious Business of Training? Which Features Improve a Game’s Effectiveness? What Are the Cognitive Consequences of Playing Off-the-Shelf Computer Games? Are Games More Effective Than Conventional Media? What Makes an Effective Game for Skill Training? What Makes an Ineffective Game for Skill Training? What We Don’t Know About Learning with Computer Games Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 20 Immersive Virtual Reality for Instruction The Promise and Pitfalls of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality Immersive Virtual Reality and Learning What Is Immersive Virtual Reality? Three Levels of Immersion Is Immersive Virtual Reality Better for Learning Than Traditional Media? When to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Learning Environments How to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Training Environments Precede IVR Experiences with Pretraining on Relevant Concepts Break the IVR Training into Segments and Ask Learners to Generate Short Summaries During the Pauses Add Hands-On Activities to an IVR Procedural Lesson What We Don’t Know About Immersive Virtual Reality Chapter Reflection Coming Next Suggested Readings Chapter 21 Applying the Multimedia Guidelines How Strong Is the Evidence for the Multimedia Principles? e-Learning Guidelines Checklists Trends in Multimedia Instructional Design Research Research on Increasing the Research Base Research on Establishing Boundary Conditions Research on Learner Engagement Research on Learner Motivational, Affective, and Social Factors The Future of Multimedia Instructional Design Research Research on New Technologies Research on Learning in Naturalistic Contexts Research with Eye Tracking, Biometric, and Cognitive Neuroscience Metrics Research on How Multimedia Instructional Design Principles Work Together Evidence on the Efficiency of Instruction Research on Collaborative Learning Conclusion Glossary References Acknowledgments About the Authors Author Index Subject Index EULA