Drying Atlas : Drying Kinetics and Quality of Agricultural Products

Drying Atlas: Drying Kinetics and Quality of Agricultural Products provides, in a condensed and systematic way, specific insights on the drying-relevant properties and coefficients of over 40 agricultural products. It also presents information about the production methods that influence the drying process, the quality of the dried product, the official quality standards of the products, and the design principles and operating characteristics of drying systems that are widely used in the postharvest processing and food industry. Available books on drying technology mainly focus on drying theory and simulation of drying processes. This book offers systematic information on the impact of other important parameters, such as relative humidity, air flow rate, mechanical, thermal and chemical pre-treatment, and drying mode for specific products. It is a unique and valuable reference for scientists and engineers who want to focus on industrial drying applications and dryers, as well as graduate and post-graduate students in postharvest technology and drying. Explores the production methods that influence the drying process and quality of the dried product Outlines the official quality standards of the products, the design principles, and the operating characteristics of drying systems that are used in postharvest processing Features 41 chapters that are (each for an agricultural product) presented in a condensed and systematic way Cover DRYING ATLAS Drying Kinetics and Quality of Agricultural Products Copyright Preface Biographies Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Werner Mühlbauer Dr. Joachim Müller Acknowledgments Part 1: Production and processing 1.1 Production Appropriate cultivars Optimum stage of maturity [1–3] Immature crops Overripe crops Fully mature crops Production methods Pre-treatments References 1.2 Drying General aspects Drying parameters Morphological characteristics Diffusion path Moisture content [6,8–10] Thermal conductivity [6, 11–16] Specific heat capacity [6, 11–17] Density [11, 12, 17] Thermal diffusivity [11–13, 17] Drying methods Sun drying In-field drying [18, 19] On-farm sun drying [20] Solar drying [5, 21–29] Solar tunnel dryer [26, 27] Solar greenhouse dryer [5, 28] Solar processing center [29] Low-temperature drying [6, 8, 30–32] High-temperature drying [6, 8, 33] Batch dryers Flat-bed dryer [6, 8] Tray dryer [34, 35] Recirculating batch dryer [6, 8] Continuous flow dryer [6, 8] Cross-flow dryer [6, 8, 36] Mixed-flow dryer [6, 36, 37] Multi-belt dryer [33, 38–42] Tunnel dryer [40, 43] Drum dryer [7, 9, 40, 44–47] References 1.3 Storage and packaging Storage conditions [6–12] Storage methods Bag storage [23–26] Advantages Disadvantages Bulk storage [19, 27–30] Advantages Disadvantages Packaging [34–36] References 1.4 Quality General aspects Utilization of dried products Quality standards Multilateral standard setting organizations Supranational standard setting organizations National standard setting organizations (exemplarily) Private industry and trade standards Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition Important ingredients References Part 2: Drying and quality kinetics 2.1 Drying kinetics Optimization strategies Field testing Simulation Standardized drying method [1, 8–10] Thin-layer laboratory dryer Thin-layer drying curves [1, 9, 10] Thin layer drying models [1, 8, 11–14] Lewis/Newton model Page model Henderson/Pabis model Two-term model Logarithmic model Midilli model Thomson model Wang and Singh model Diamante et al. model References 2.2 Quality kinetics Impact of drying on quality Optimization strategy [1] Standardized procedure Reaction kinetics [12–16] References Part 3: Cereals 3.1 Barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) Morphological characteristics [1–3] ( Fig. 3.1.1, Table 3.1.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [9] Production method [10] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.1.2) Drying methods [7] High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [7] ( Fig. 3.1.2) Storage facilities [13, 14] Quality Utilization of dried products [15] ( Fig. 3.1.3) Quality standards ( Table 3.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 3.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.4–3.1.6) Influence of relative humidity [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.7 and 3.1.8) Influence of air velocity [24, 25] ( Figs. 3.1.9 and 3.1.10) Quality kinetics Influence of the temperature [24] ( Fig. 3.1.11) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 3.2 Maize ( Zea mays L.) Morphological characteristics [1–4] ( Figs. 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, Table 3.2.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [8] Production methods [9] Seed maize Feed maize Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.2.2) Drying methods [6, 7, 10] Maize cob drying Maize kernel drying Storage Storage conditions [6] ( Figs. 3.2.3 and 3.2.4) Storage facilities [10, 12] Quality Utilization of dried products [5] ( Figs. 3.2.5 and 3.2.6) Quality standards ( Table 3.2.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 3.2.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Drying of maize kernels Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 3.2.7–3.2.9) Influence of relative humidity [6] ( Fig. 3.2.10) Influence of air velocity [6] ( Fig. 3.2.11) Influence of initial moisture content [6] ( Fig. 3.2.12) Drying of maize cobs Influence of temperature [19] ( Fig. 3.2.13) Quality kinetics Seed maize Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 3.2.14) Influence of initial moisture content [20] ( Fig. 3.2.15) Feed maize Influence of temperature [6, 21] ( Figs. 3.2.16–3.2.19) Influence of initial moisture content ( Fig. 3.2.20) Maize for dry milling Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 3.2.21–3.2.23) Maize for wet milling Influence of temperature [23] ( Figs. 3.2.24 and 3.2.25) Recommendations Production of maize cobs Major quality parameter Production and processing Production of maize kernels Major quality parameters Production and processing References 3.3 Oat ( Avena sativa L.) Morphological characteristics [1–4] ( Fig. 3.3.1 and Table 3.3.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity Production method [7, 8] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.3.2) Drying methods [5] Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying Storage [5] Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.3.2) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [10] ( Fig. 3.3.3) Quality standards ( Table 3.3.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 3.3.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.3.4–3.3.6) Influence of relative humidity [17] ( Figs. 3.3.7 and 3.3.8) Influence of air velocity [17] ( Figs. 3.3.9 and 3.3.10) Quality kinetics Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 3.4 Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Morphological characteristics [1–3] ( Fig. 3.3.1 and Table 3.3.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity General requirements Traditional cultivars High-yielding cultivars Production methods [6–9] Manual production Mechanized production Processing of paddy rice Milling [10, 11] Objectives Method Parboiling [11, 12] Objectives Method Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.3.2) Drying methods [15–18] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions ( Figs. 3.3.2 and 3.3.3) Storage facilities Storage in bags [20, 21] Storage in bulk [11, 22] Quality Utilization of dried products [5, 23] ( Figs. 3.3.4–3.3.6) Quality standards ( Table 3.3.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 3.3.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [28] ( Figs. 3.3.7–3.3.9) Influence of initial moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.10) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [28] ( Fig. 3.3.11) Influence of final moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.12) Influence of initial and final moisture content [28] ( Fig. 3.3.13) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 3.5 Rye ( Secale cereale L.) Morphological characteristics [1, 2] ( Fig. 3.5.1 and Table 3.5.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity Production method [5] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.5.2) Drying methods [4] Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying Storage [6] Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.5.2) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [8, 9] ( Fig. 3.5.3) Quality standards ( Table 3.5.3) Drying relevant parameters [4] Chemical composition ( Table 3.5.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [4, 17] ( Figs. 3.5.4–3.5.9) Influence of relative humidity [17] ( Figs. 3.5.10 and 3.5.11) Influence of air velocity [17] ( Figs. 3.5.12 and 3.5.13) Influence of initial moisture content [17] ( Fig. 3.5.14) Quality kinetics Seed rye Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.15 and 3.5.16) Influence of the product temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.17 and 3.5.18) Bread rye Influence of temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.19–3.5.22) Influence of product temperature [17] ( Figs. 3.5.23 and 3.5.24) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 3.6 Wheat ( Triticum L.) Morphological characteristics [1–5] ( Fig. 3.6.1 and Table 3.6.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [8] Production method [9] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 3.6.2) Drying methods [6, 7] Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions ( Fig. 3.6.2) Storage facilities [12, 13] Quality Utilization of dried products [14, 15] Soft wheat ( Fig. 3.6.3) Hard wheat (durum wheat) Quality standards ( Table 3.6.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 3.6.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [6, 23] ( Figs. 3.6.4–3.6.6) Influence of relative humidity [6, 23] ( Fig. 3.6.7) Influence of air velocity [6] ( Fig. 3.6.8) Influence of initial moisture content [6, 23] ( Fig. 3.6.9) Quality kinetics Seed wheat Influence of temperature [6, 24] ( Fig. 3.6.10) Influence of initial moisture content [6, 24] ( Figs. 3.6.11 and 3.6.12) Bread wheat Influence of temperature [6, 24] ( Figs. 3.6.13–3.6.16) Influence of initial moisture content [6, 24] ( Fig. 3.6.17) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 4: Root crops 4.1 Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2, Table 4.1.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity Production methods Food (gari) [4] Animal feed (tapioca) [5] Starch production [6] Pre-treatments Mechanical pre-treatment [1] Objectives Methods Thermal pre-treatment [6] Objectives Methods Chemical pre-treatment Drying Drying parameters ( Table 4.1.2) Drying methods [8] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions ( Fig. 4.1.3) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [10, 11] ( Figs. 4.1.4–4.1.6) Quality standards ( Table 4.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 4.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [19] ( Figs. 4.1.7 and 4.1.8) Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Fig. 4.1.9) Influence of air velocity [19] ( Figs. 4.1.10 and 4.1.11) Influence of mechanical pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.12) Influence of slice thickness [19] ( Fig. 4.1.13 and 4.1.14) Influence of thermal pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.15) Comparison of drying modes [19] Influence of temperature Through-flow drying ( Fig. 4.1.16) Over-flow drying ( Figs. 4.1.17 and 4.1.18) Influence of air velocity [19] Through-flow drying ( Fig. 4.1.19) Over-flow drying ( Figs. 4.1.20 and 4.1.21) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [19] ( Figs. 4.1.22–4.1.26) Influence of air velocity [19] ( Fig. 4.1.27) Influence of thermal pre-treatment [19] ( Fig. 4.1.28) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 4.2 Potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, Table 4.2.1) Production Appropriate cultivars [7] Optimum stage of maturity [8] Production method [4, 9] Pre-treatments Mechanical pre-treatment Objectives Methods Thermal pre-treatment [10, 11] Objectives Methods Chemical pre-treatments [12] Objectives Methods Drying Drying parameters ( Table 4.2.2) Drying methods [7, 12, 15] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage [16] Storage conditions ( Fig. 4.2.3) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [7, 18] ( Fig. 4.2.4) Quality standards ( Table 4.2.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 4.2.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [21] ( Figs. 4.2.5 and 4.2.6) Influence of air velocity [21] ( Figs. 4.2.7 and 4.2.8) Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Figs. 4.2.9 and 4.2.10) Influence of pre-treatment [21] ( Figs. 4.2.11 and 4.2.12) Influence of cultivar [21] ( Fig. 4.2.13) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 4.2.14 and 4.2.15) Influence of relative humidity [22] ( Figs. 4.2.16 and 4.2.17) Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Figs. 4.2.18–4.2.20) Influence of shape [21] ( Fig. 4.2.21) Influence of pre-treatment [21] ( Figs. 4.2.22 and 4.2.23) Influence of cultivar [21] ( Figs. 4.2.24–4.2.26) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 5: Oil crops 5.1 Coconut ( Cocos nucifera L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 5.1.1 and 5.1.2, Table 5.1.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [3] Production methods [2, 4] Production of coconut halves Production of copra pieces Pre-treatment Osmotic dehydration [5] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 5.1.2) Drying methods [6, 7, 9–11] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions ( Fig. 5.1.3) Storage facilities [12] Quality Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 5.1.4–5.1.6) Quality standards ( Table 5.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 5.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 5.1.7–5.1.9) Influence of relative humidity [6] ( Figs. 5.1.10 and 5.1.11) Influence of air velocity [6] ( Figs. 5.1.12 and 5.1.13) Influence of nut orientation [6] ( Fig. 5.1.14) Influence of mechanical pre-treatment and orientation on the drying time [6] Influence of endosperm size and shape [6] ( Fig. 5.1.15) Influence of the Shell [6] ( Fig. 5.1.16) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [6] ( Figs. 5.1.17–5.1.21) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 5.2 Peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.) Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, Table 5.2.1) Production [4] Optimum stage of maturity Production methods Manual production Mechanized production Drying Drying parameters ( Table 5.2.2) Drying methods [5] Sun drying Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying of pods Storage [9] Storage conditions ( Figs. 5.2.3 and 5.2.4) Storage methods Quality Utilization of dried products [9] ( Figs. 5.2.5 and 5.2.6) Quality standards ( Table 5.2.3) Drying relevant parameter Chemical composition ( Table 5.2.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Drying of kernels Influence of temperature [13] ( Fig. 5.2.7) Influence of relative humidity [13] ( Fig. 5.2.8) Influence of air velocity [13] ( Fig. 5.2.9) Drying of kernel and hull [14] ( Fig. 5.2.10) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [15] ( Fig. 5.2.11) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 5.3 Rapeseed ( Brassica napus var. napus) Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2, Table 5.3.1) Production [3, 4] Optimum stage of maturity Production method Drying Drying parameters ( Table 5.3.2) Drying methods [9, 10] Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying Storage [10] Storage conditions ( Fig. 5.3.3) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [4, 5] ( Fig. 5.3.4) Quality standards ( Table 5.3.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 5.3.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature ( Figs. 5.3.5–5.3.8) Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Figs. 5.3.9 and 5.3.10) Influence of initial moisture content [18] ( Fig. 5.3.11) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 5.3.12) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 5.4 Soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Morphological characteristics [1, 2] ( Figs. 5.4.1 and 5.4.2, Table 5.4.1) Production [2] Optimum stage of maturity Production method Drying Drying parameters ( Table 5.4.2) Drying methods [9] Sun drying Low-temperature in-storage drying High-temperature drying Storage [10–13] ( Fig. 5.4.3) Storage conditions Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [15, 16] ( Fig. 5.4.4) Quality standards ( Table 5.4.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 5.4.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [20] ( Figs. 5.4.5–5.4.7) Influence of the relative humidity [20] ( Fig. 5.4.7) Influence of initial moisture content [20] ( Fig. 5.4.8) Quality kinetics Influence of relative humidity [21] ( Fig. 5.4.9) Influence of initial moisture content [21] ( Figs. 5.4.10 and 5.4.11) Recommendations Major quality parameters Cultivation and processing References 5.5 Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 5.5.1 and 5.5.2, Table 5.5.1) Production [4–7] Optimum stage of maturity Production methods Manual production Mechanized production Drying Drying parameters ( Table 5.5.2) Drying methods [6, 10] Sun drying High-temperature dryings Storage [6, 7, 11] Storage conditions ( Figs. 5.5.3 and 5.5.4) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [4] ( Figs. 5.5.5 and 5.5.6) Quality standards ( Table 5.5.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 5.5.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [12] ( Figs. 5.5.7 and 5.5.8) Influence of relative humidity [12] ( Figs. 5.5.9 and 5.5.10) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature ( Figs. 5.5.11 and 5.5.12) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 6: Vegetables 6.1 Carrot ( Daucus carota) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, Table 6.1.1) Production Appropriate properties [2] Selection criteria Optimum stage of maturity [3] Production method [4] Pre-treatments [5] Objectives Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatment [5–8] Chemical pre-treatments [9, 10] Osmotic dehydration [11] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 6.1.2) Drying methods [5, 8] High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [7, 13] ( Fig. 6.1.3) Storage/Packaging facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 6.1.4 and 6.1.5) Quality standards ( Table 6.1.3) Drying relevant parameter Chemical composition ( Table 6.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature ( Figs. 6.1.6–6.1.8) Influence of air velocity [17] ( Fig. 6.1.9) Influence of shape [17] ( Fig. 6.1.10) Influence of pre-treatments [17] ( Fig. 6.1.11) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature ( Figs. 6.1.12–6.1.16) Influence of relative humidity [19] ( Figs. 6.1.17 and 6.1.18) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 6.2 Paprika ( Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 6.2.1 and 6.2.2, Table 6.2.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [2] Production method [3] Pre-treatments [4, 5] Objectives Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatment [5, 6] Chemical pre-treatment [7, 8] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 6.2.2) Drying methods [10, 11] Sun drying Solar drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [12] ( Figs. 6.2.3–6.2.6) Powder—Flakes Halved Pods—Stripes—Slices Storage facilities [10, 11] Powder—Flakes Halved Pods—Stripes—Slices Quality Utilization of dried products [3] ( Figs. 6.2.7 and 6.2.8) Quality standards ( Table 6.2.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 6.2.4) Pungent components Carotenoids [17]: 0.1–0.8% Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 6.2.9 and 6.2.10) Influence of the shape [18] ( Fig. 6.2.11) Influence of slice width [18] ( Fig. 6.2.12) Comparison of thermal and chemical pre-treatments [18] ( Fig. 6.2.13) Influence of the chemical pre-treatment [18] ( Fig. 6.2.14) Influence of Cultivar [18] ( Fig. 6.2.15) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [18] ( Figs. 6.2.16 and 6.2.17) Influence of temperature on retention [19] ( Figs. 6.2.18 and 6.2.19) Influence of thermal and chemical pre-treatments [18] ( Fig. 6.2.20) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 6.3 Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 6.3.1 and 6.3.2, Table 6.3.1) Production Appropriate properties [4] Optimum stage of maturity [5, 6] Production methods [3] Pre-treatments Objectives Ripening [1, 6] Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatments [7] Chemical pre-treatments [8, 9] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 6.3.2) Drying methods [4, 12] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [13] ( Fig. 6.3.3) Storage facilities Halved or sliced tomato Tomato powder [7] Quality Utilization of dried products [3] ( Fig. 6.3.4) Quality standards ( Table 6.3.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 6.3.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Through-flow drying Influence of temperature [16] ( Figs. 6.3.5–6.3.7) Influence of air velocity [16] ( Figs. 6.3.8 and 6.3.9) Influence of mechanical treatment [16] ( Fig. 6.3.10) Influence of maturity stage [16] ( Fig. 6.3.11) Over-flow drying Influence of temperature [4] ( Figs. 6.3.12–6.3.14) Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Figs. 6.3.15 and 6.3.16) Influence of air velocity [4] ( Figs. 6.3.17 and 6.3.18) Influence of mechanical treatment [4] ( Fig. 6.3.19) Influence of cultivar [4] ( Figs. 6.3.20 and 6.3.21) Comparison through-flow and over-flow drying [4] Influence of temperature [4] ( Fig. 6.3.22) Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.23) Influence of air velocity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.24) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [4] ( Figs. 6.3.25 and 6.3.26) Influence of relative humidity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.27) Influence of air velocity [4] ( Fig. 6.3.28) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 7: Spices 7.1 Chili ( Capsicum annuum L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.1.1 and 7.1.2, Table 7.1.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [3, 4] Production method Pre-treatments [3, 5, 6] Objectives Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatment [7] Chemical pre-treatments [8] Osmotic treatments [9] Drying Drying properties ( Table 7.1.2) Drying methods Sun drying Solar drying [12] High-temperature drying [13, 14] Storage Storage conditions [14, 15] ( Figs. 7.1.3–7.1.5) Storage/Packaging facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [1] ( Figs. 7.1.6 and 7.1.7) Quality standards ( Table 7.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 7.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [22] ( Figs. 7.1.8–7.1.10) Influence of the size [22] ( Fig. 7.1.11) Influence of mechanical pre-treatment [23] ( Fig. 7.1.12) Influence of chemical pre-treatment [23] ( Fig. 7.1.13) Influence of cultivar [23] ( Fig. 7.1.14) Quality kinetics Influence of drying air temperature ( Figs. 7.1.15–7.1.20) Green chili pods [23] Influence of pre-treatment ( Figs. 7.1.21–7.1.23) Recommendations Major quality parameters red chilis Spice Medicine Production and processing References 7.2 Garlic ( Allium sativum L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, Table 7.2.1) Production [3–6] Appropriate properties Optimum stage of maturity [7] Production method [7] Pre-treatments Objectives Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatment [8] Chemical pre-treatments [9] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 7.2.2) Drying methods [12] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage [13] Storage conditions ( Fig. 7.2.3) Storage facilities [12] Quality Utilization of dried products [1, 2] ( Fig. 7.2.4) Quality standards ( Table 7.2.3) Drying relevant parameter ( Table 7.2.4) Chemical composition Important ingredients Drying kinetics Drying of garlic cloves [19] ( Figs. 7.2.5–7.2.7) Drying of garlic slices Influence of temperature [20] ( Fig. 7.2.8) Influence of relative humidity [20] ( Fig. 7.2.9) Influence of slice thickness [21] ( Fig. 7.2.10) Quality kinetics Garlic cloves [19] Influence of temperature ( Figs. 7.2.11 and 7.2.12) Garlic slices Influence of temperature [22] ( Fig. 7.2.13) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 7.3 Onion ( Allium cepa L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 7.3.1–7.3.3, Table 7.3.1) Production Appropriate properties [1–3] Optimum stage of maturity [3] Production method [3] Post-ripening process Pre-treatment Objectives Mechanical pre-treatments Thermal pre-treatments [4] Chemical pre-treatment [5, 6] Osmotic pre-treatment [7] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 7.3.2) Drying methods [2, 9] Sun drying High-temperature drying Storage [10] Storage conditions ( Fig. 7.3.4) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products ( Fig. 7.3.5) Quality standards ( Table 7.3.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 7.3.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [14] ( Figs. 7.3.6–7.3.8) Influence of relative humidity [14] ( Figs. 7.3.9 and 7.3.10) Influence of air velocity [14] ( Figs. 7.3.11 and 7.3.12) Influence of slice thickness [14] ( Figs. 7.3.13 and 7.3.14) Influence of cultivar [14] ( Fig. 7.3.15) Influence of drying mode [14] ( Figs. 7.3.16–7.3.18) Quality kinetics [14, 15] Influence of temperature ( Figs. 7.3.19–7.3.23) Influence of relative humidity [14, 15] ( Fig. 7.3.24) Influence of air velocity [14] ( Fig. 7.3.25) Influence of slice thickness [14] ( Figs. 7.3.26–7.3.28) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 8: Stimulants 8.1 Cocoa ( Theobroma cacao L.) Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 8.1.1–8.1.3 and Table 8.1.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity Production method [4] Fermentation [5–7] Objectives Anaerobe fermentation Aerobe fermentation Fermentation methods Drying Drying parameters ( Table 8.1.2) Drying methods Sun drying [4, 7, 8] Solar drying [7–9] High-temperature drying [6, 8] Storage [10] Storage conditions ( Fig. 8.1.4) Storage facilities [12] Quality Utilization of dried products [4] ( Fig. 8.1.5) Quality standards ( Table 8.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Sun drying High-temperature drying Chemical composition ( Table 8.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [8] ( Figs. 8.1.6 and 8.1.7) Influence of relative humidity [8] ( Fig. 8.1.8) Influence of air velocity [8] ( Figs. 8.1.9 and 8.1.10) Influence of pH-value [8] ( Fig. 8.1.11) Quality kinetics Influence of the temperature [16] ( Figs. 8.1.12 and 8.1.13) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 8.2 Coffee (Coffea L., Rubiaceae) Morphological characteristics (Figs. 8.2.1–8.2.3 and Table 8.2.1) Production Optimum stage of maturity [7] Production methods Harvesting methods [1] Dry processing [1, 8, 9] Wet processing [1, 8, 9] Drying Drying parameters (Table 8.2.2) Drying methods [1, 8] Sun drying cherries High-temperature drying beans Storage [1, 12, 13] Storage conditions (Figs. 8.2.4 and 8.2.5) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [1] (Figs. 8.2.6–8.2.8) Quality standards (Table 8.2.3) Organoleptic characteristics Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition (Table 8.2.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Drying of coffee cherries Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.9 and 8.2.10) Influence of air velocity [20] (Fig. 8.2.11) Drying of coffee beans Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.12 and 8.2.13) Influence of relative humidity [20] (Figs. 8.2.14 and 8.2.15) Influence of air velocity [20] (Figs. 8.2.16 and 8.2.17) Comparison dry and wet processing [20] (Fig. 8.2.18) Quality kinetics Dry processing Influence of temperature [20] (Figs. 8.2.19 and 8.2.20) Wet processing Influence of temperature (Figs. 8.2.21–8.2.23) Comparison dry and wet processing [20] (Figs. 8.2.24–8.2.27) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References Part 9: Fruits 9.1 Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) Morphological characteristics (Figs. 9.1.1 and 9.1.2, Table 9.1.1) Production Appropriate cultivars Selection criteria Sweet varieties Sour varieties Optimum stage of maturity [3, 4] Production methods Pre-storage [5] Objectives Cold storage Controlled atmosphere storage Pre-treatments [6] Objectives Mechanical pre-treatment Thermal pre-treatments Chemical pre-treatments Osmotic dehydration [7] Drying Drying parameters (Table 9.1.2) Drying methods [8] High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [10, 11] (Fig. 9.1.3) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [1] (Figs. 9.1.4–9.1.7) Quality standard (Table 9.1.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition (Table 9.1.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [15] (Figs. 9.1.8 and 9.1.9) Influence of relative humidity [16] (Figs. 9.1.10 and 9.1.11) Influence of air velocity [15] (Figs. 9.1.12 and 9.1.13) Influence of slice thickness [15] (Figs. 9.1.14 and 9.1.15) Influence of cultivar [15] (Fig. 9.1.16) Influence of chemical pre-treatment [15] (Fig. 9.1.17) Quality kinetics (Fig. 9.1.18) Influence of temperature (Figs. 9.1.19–9.1.22) Influence of relative humidity (Figs. 9.1.23 and 9.1.24) Influence of air velocity [15] (Fig. 9.1.25) Influence of slice thickness [15] (Fig. 9.1.26) Influence of chemical pre-treatment [15] (Fig. 9.1.27) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 9.2 Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca L.) Morphological characteristics ( Figs. 9.2.1 and 9.2.2, Table 9.2.1) Production Appropriate cultivars Selection criteria Cultivars [5] Optimum stage of maturity [1, 5, 6] Production methods [7] Whole fruits Halved fruits Pre-treatments [1, 2, 7–9] Objectives Mechanical pre-treatments Chemical pre-treatments Gaseous sulfuring [7] Liquid sulfuring [9, 10] Drying Drying parameters ( Table 9.2.2) Drying methods [2] Sun drying Solar drying High-temperature drying Storage Storage conditions [13] ( Fig. 9.2.3) Storage facilities Quality Utilization of dried products [2] ( Figs. 9.2.4–9.2.6) Quality standards ( Table 9.2.3) Drying relevant parameters Chemical composition ( Table 9.2.4) Important ingredients Drying kinetics Influence of temperature [2] ( Figs. 9.2.7 and 9.2.8) Influence of relative humidity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.9 and 9.2.10) Influence of air velocity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.11 and 9.2.12) Influence of fruit size [2] ( Figs. 9.2.13 and 9.2.14) Influence of cultivar [2] ( Fig. 9.2.15) Influence of chemical pre-treatment [2] ( Fig. 9.2.16) Quality kinetics Influence of temperature [2] ( Figs. 9.2.17 and 9.2.18) Influence of relative humidity [2] ( Figs. 9.2.19 and 9.2.20) Influence of sulfuring method [19] ( Fig. 9.2.21) Influence of cultivar on reconstitution kinetics [2] ( Fig. 9.2.22) Recommendations Major quality parameters Production and processing References 9.3 Banana ( Musa × paradisiaca) Morphological characteristics [1] ( Figs. 9.3.1 and 9.3.2, Table 9.3.1) Production Appropriate cultivars General selection criteria Production of whole fruits Production of slices Cultivars for banana drying Production of whole fruits Production of slices Production methods Dried whole fruits [3] Dried slices [4] Ripening [5, 6] Optimum ripening stage [7] Natural r Drying Atlas: Drying Kinetics And Quality Of Agricultural Products Features Foundational Overview Information For Food Production As An Introduction To This Important Process. The Book Provides, In A Condensed And Systematic Way, Specific Insights To The Drying-relevant Properties And Coefficients Of Over 40 Agricultural Products. It Also Presents Information About Production Methods Influencing The Drying Process And The Quality Of The Dried Product, The Official Quality Standards Of The Products, The Design Principles And Operating Characteristics Of Drying Systems That Are Widely Used In Postharvest Processing And Food Industry. Available Books On Drying Technology Mainly Focus On Drying Theory And Simulation Of Drying Processes. Drying Atlas: Drying Kinetics And Quality Of Agricultural Products Offers Systematic Information About The Impact Of Other Important Parameters Such As Relative Humidity, Air Flow Rate, Mechanical, Thermal And Chemical Pre-treatment, And Drying Mode For Specific Products. This Book Is A Unique And Valuable Reference For Those Scientists And Engineers Focused On Industrial Drying Applications And Dryers, As Well As Graduate And Post-graduate Students In Postharvest Technology And Drying. Explores Production Methods Influencing The Drying Process And The Quality Of The Dried Product Outlines The Official Quality Standards Of The Products, The Design Principles, And Operating Characteristics Of Drying Systems That Are Used In Postharvest Processing Features 41 Chapters (each For An Agricultural Product) Presented In A Condensed And Systematic Way __Drying Atlas: Drying Kinetics and Quality of Agricultural Products__ provides, in a condensed and systematic way, specific insights on the drying-relevant properties and coefficients of over 40 agricultural products. It also presents information about the production methods that influence the drying process, the quality of the dried product, the official quality standards of the products, and the design principles and operating characteristics of drying systems that are widely used in the postharvest processing and food industry. Available books on drying technology mainly focus on drying theory and simulation of drying processes. This book offers systematic information on the impact of other important parameters, such as relative humidity, air flow rate, mechanical, thermal and chemical pre-treatment, and drying mode for specific products. It is a unique and valuable reference for scientists and engineers who want to focus on industrial drying applications and dryers, as well as graduate and post-graduate students in postharvest technology and drying.