Distributed Sensor Arrays : Localization

"Localization of transmitters and receiving sensors is achieved by measuring radiation emitted by a source to a set of sensors, which are either on a definite pattern, known as an array, or one randomly located at irregular points, known as a distributed sensor array. This book discusses how to determine the position of sensors and transmit information to a central node, also known as the anchor node. Time of arrival, time difference of arrival, frequency time of arrival, and strength of received signal are also covered. The readifer will learn effective algorithms and implementation, as well as numerical examples, with the inclusion of lab experiments. It discusses time synchronization, including the rotating laser beam to measure distance, in detail."--Provided by publisher Cover 1 Half Title 2 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Dedication 6 Table of Contents 8 Preface 12 Acknowledgments 14 Author 16 1: Distributed Sensor Arrays 18 1.1 Regular Sensor Array 18 1.2 Wired Sensor Array 19 1.2.1 DSA Response 20 1.2.2 Focused Beam 21 1.2.3 Boundary Array 24 1.3 Autonomous Wireless Sensor Network 24 1.3.1 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) 27 1.4 Types of Sensors 29 1.4.1 Thermal Sensor 30 1.4.2 Microphone 31 1.4.3 Hydrophones 32 1.4.4 Accelerometer 33 1.4.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Sensors 36 1.4.6 Electric Sensors 36 1.4.7 Magnetic Sensors 36 1.4.8 Hall Effect 37 1.4.9 Nanosensors 38 References 39 2: Basic Inputs 40 2.1 RECEIVED SIGNAL STRENGTH 40 2.2 LIGHTHOUSE EFFECT 42 2.2.1 Beam generation 43 2.2.2 Prototype 45 2.2.3 Events with Large Propagation Speed Difference 45 2.3 TIME OF ARRIVAL 45 2.4 TIME DIFFERENCE OF ARRIVAL 48 2.4.1 TDoA with A Reference Transmitter 49 2.5 FREQUENCY DIFFERENCE OF ARRIVAL 49 2.6 DIRECTION OF ARRIVAL 53 2.7 PHASE CHANGE 55 2.8 INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY 56 2.9 SUMMARY 56 References 57 3: Estimation of ToA/TDoA/FDoA 58 3.1 Generalized Cross-Correlation 58 3.2 Time Delay As FIR Filter 62 3.3 Eigenvector Approach 66 3.4 Subspace Approach 71 3.5 Capon’s Minimum Variance 74 3.6 Adaptive Notch Filter 77 3.6.1 Adaptation scheme 81 3.6.2 Delay estimation 81 3.7 Instantaneous Frequency Spectrum 84 3.8 Phase-Based Methods 86 3.8.1 Multitone signaling 89 3.8.2 Sliding FDFT 90 3.9 Frequency Difference of Arrival 93 3.9.1 Adaptive Frequency Detector 94 3.9.2 Computational complexity 99 3.10 Summary 99 References 100 4: Localization 102 4.1 Received Signal Strength 102 4.1.1 Transmitter Coordinates 104 4.1.2 Estimation Errors 107 4.2 ToA Measurements 110 4.2.1 Simple Method 110 4.2.2 Iterative Method 111 4.3 TDoA Measurements 116 4.3.1 Re-Minimization 116 4.3.2 Treat Range as a Variable 120 4.3.3 Annihilation of Range Variable 122 4.3.4 Direction Cosines 123 4.4 FDoA Measurements 125 4.4.1 Differential Doppler 129 4.5 DoA Measurements 130 4.5.1 Errors in Node Position 131 4.5.2 Errors in DoA 132 4.5.3 Analysis of Bias 135 4.5.4 Total Least Squares (TLS ) 136 4.6 Compressive Sensing 137 4.6.1 Compressive Sampling Matching Pursuit (CoSaMP) 139 4.6.2 Localization 140 4.6.3 Far Field 140 4.6.4 Near Field 145 4.6.5 One-Bit Quantized Measurements 147 4.7 Summary 152 References 153 5: Hybrid Methods for Localization 154 5.1 Combined Use of FDoA and TDoA 154 5.1.1 Narrow band 154 5.1.2 Annihilating matrix 156 5.2 Direct Position Determination 157 5.3 DoA from Distributed Sensors 162 5.4 Expectation-Maximization Algorithm 173 5.4.1 Expectation step (E-step) 175 5.4.2 Maximization step (M-step) 177 5.4.3 Estimation of transmitted signal 179 5.5 Localization in a Multipath Environment 180 5.5.1 Time domain 180 5.5.2 Frequency domain 186 5.6 Summary 190 References 192 6: Self-Localization 194 6.1 ANCHOR-BASED LOCALIZATION 194 6.1.1 Cooperative Localization 199 6.1.2 Subspace Positioning Approach 201 6.2 ANCHOR-FREE LOCALIZATION 206 6.2.1 Multidimensional Scaling 206 6.2.2 Basis Point MDS 211 6.2.3 1D Space 212 6.2.4 2D Space 212 6.2.5 3D Space 214 6.2.6 Missing Data 216 6.2.7 Computational Load 216 6.3 CLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION 217 6.3.1 Single Reply 218 6.3.2 Double Reply 219 6.3.3 Linear Model 220 6.3.4 Joint Estimation of Offset, Skew (Drift), and Delay 223 6.3.5 Estimation of Travel Time 225 6.4 SUMMARY 228 References 229 Index 230 The book discusses how to determine the position of sensors and transmit information to a central node (the anchor node). It covers time of arrival, time difference of arrival, frequency time of arrival, and strength of received signal. The reader will learn effective algorithms and implementation, including lab experiments and numerical examples.