DISCOVER PSYCHOLOGY MACINTROPSYCH : ESSENTIAL READINGS FOR 1X03/1N03/1F03 2020/2021

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Foundations of Psychology (supplementary) ................................................................... 10 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 10 What is psychology? ........................................................................................................................ 12 Section 1: The History of Psychology ............................................................................................... 15 Philosophical Foundations .............................................................................................................. 15 The Science of Psychology Emerges: Wundt and Structuralism ............................................. 16 SECTION REVIEW: History of Psychology ................................................................................. 18 Section 2: Modern Developments ..................................................................................................... 19 The Adaptive Nature of Consciousness: James and Functionalism ........................................ 19 Perception and Reality: Wertheimer and Gestalt ........................................................................ 21 The Black Box: Watson and Behaviourism .................................................................................. 23 Box 1.1: The Behaviourists and Nature vs. Nurture ................................................................... 25 Unconscious Motives: Freud and Psychoanalysis ...................................................................... 27 Box 1.2: What does a behaviourist have to do to get a coffee around here? ......................... 28 SECTION REVIEW: Modern Developments ................................................................................ 29 Section 3: Recent Revolutions ........................................................................................................... 30 Opening the Black Box: The Cognitive Revolution ..................................................................... 30 Human Exceptionalism: Rogers and Humanism ......................................................................... 32 SECTION REVIEW: Recent Revolutions ..................................................................................... 33 Section 4: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology ................................................................... 34 Levels of Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 34 SECTION REVIEW: Levels of Analysis ........................................................................................ 36 Section 5: Multiple Perspectives ........................................................................................................ 37 Multiple Perspectives in Psychology ............................................................................................. 37 SECTION REVIEW: Multiple Perspectives .................................................................................. 39 Section 6: Basic and Applied Research............................................................................................ 40 SECTION REVIEW: Basic and Applied Research ...................................................................... 41 Section 7: Sub-Disciplines in Psychology ........................................................................................ 42 Sub-Disciplines in Psychology ....................................................................................................... 42 Box 1.3: Application: The Pervasive Role of Perspectives ........................................................ 46 SECTION REVIEW: Sub-Disciplines in Psychology................................................................... 48 Chapter Feedback ................................................................................................................................ 49 Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. 49 References ............................................................................................................................................ 52 Chapter 2: Research Methods in Psychology ................................................................................ 56 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 56 Why We Need the Scientific Method ......................................................................................... 59 Box 2.1 Jaytee the Psychic Dog ................................................................................................. 59 Operational Definitions ................................................................................................................. 61 Psychology as a Science ............................................................................................................. 63 Asking Questions and Multiple Methods of Analysis .......................................................... 64 SECTION REVIEW: Introduction to Research Methods ....................................................... 66 Section 1: The Scientific Approach to Psychology I ................................................................ 67 The Basic Rules of Scientific Inquiry ........................................................................................ 67 Empiricism and Objectivity ......................................................................................................... 69 SECTION QUIZ: The Scientific Approach to Psychology I.................................................. 70 SECTION REVIEW: The Scientific Approach to Psychology I ........................................... 71 Section 2: The Scientific Approach to Psychology II ............................................................... 71 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning in Science .................................................................... 72 The Process of Scientific Investigation ................................................................................... 74 Testing our Hypotheses: Reliability and Validity .................................................................. 78 SECTION QUIZ: The Scientific Approach to Psychology II ................................................ 79 SECTION REVIEW: The Scientific Approach to Psychology II .......................................... 79 Section 3: Case Studies & Correlations ....................................................................................... 79 Case Studies ................................................................................................................................... 80 Correlational Studies .................................................................................................................... 82 SECTION QUIZ: Case Studies & Correlations ........................................................................ 87 SECTION REVIEW: Case Studies & Correlations .................................................................. 87 Section 4: Experiments .................................................................................................................... 88 Experiments ..................................................................................................................................... 88 Box 2.2: Application | Twisting Science .................................................................................. 93 SECTION QUIZ: Experiments ...................................................................................................... 96 SECTION REVIEW: Experiments ................................................................................................ 97 Section 5: Coming to Conclusions ................................................................................................ 97 Samples and Populations ............................................................................................................ 97 Descriptive Statistics .................................................................................................................. 102 SECTION QUIZ: Coming to Conclusions ............................................................................... 104 SECTION REVIEW: Coming to Conclusions ......................................................................... 104 Section 6: Inferential Statistics .................................................................................................... 104 Inferential Statistics and Variability ........................................................................................ 104 SECTION QUIZ: Inferential Statistics and Variability ......................................................... 110 SECTION REVIEW: Inferential Statistics and Variability ................................................... 110 Section 7: Looking for Flaws & Evaluating Research ............................................................ 111 Type I and Type II Errors ............................................................................................................ 112 Box 2.3 Placebo Effects.............................................................................................................. 114 Distortions in Self-Report Data ................................................................................................ 115 Experimenter Bias ....................................................................................................................... 116 SECTION QUIZ: Evaluating Research..................................................................................... 117 SECTION REVIEW: Evaluating Research .............................................................................. 117 Chapter Feedback ............................................................................................................................ 118 Key Terms .......................................................................................................................................... 119 References ......................................................................................................................................... 123 Chapter 3: Classical Conditioning........................................................................................................ 126 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 126 Section 1: Learning ............................................................................................................................ 127 Box 3.1 Latent Learning ................................................................................................................ 128 SECTION QUIZ: Learning ............................................................................................................ 130 SECTION REVIEW: Learning ...................................................................................................... 130 Section 2: Habituation and Sensitization ........................................................................................ 130 Habituation ...................................................................................................................................... 131 Sensitization .................................................................................................................................... 132 Non-Associative Learning ............................................................................................................. 133 SECTION QUIZ: Habituation and Sensitization ........................................................................ 133 SECTION REVIEW: Habituation and Sensitization .................................................................. 133 Section 3: Classical Conditioning .................................................................................................... 134 Associative Learning ...................................................................................................................... 134 Pavlov’s Psychic Secretions ......................................................................................................... 135 Box 3.2: Classical Conditioning Terminology ............................................................................ 136 SECTION REVIEW: Classical Conditioning............................................................................... 137 Section 4: Acquisition ........................................................................................................................ 137 Acquisition ....................................................................................................................................... 137 Contiguity ......................................................................................................................................... 138 Asymptotic Responding ................................................................................................................. 139 SECTION QUIZ: Acquisition ......................................................................................................... 140 SECTION REVIEW: Acquisition .................................................................................................. 140 Section 5: Extinction .......................................................................................................................... 140 Extinction of the CR ....................................................................................................................... 140 Box 3.3 Test Trials vs. Extinction Trials ...................................................................................... 141 SECTION QUIZ: Extinction ........................................................................................................... 146 SECTION REVIEW: Extinction .................................................................................................... 146 Section 6: Homeostasis ..................................................................................................................... 147 Physiological Regulation ............................................................................................................... 147 Target Study: Morphine Overdose and Environment Specificity ............................................ 149 SECTION QUIZ: Homeostasis ..................................................................................................... 154 SECTION REVIEW: Homeostasis ............................................................................................... 154 Section 7: Generalization and Discrimination ................................................................................ 155 SECTION REVIEW: Generalization and Discrimination .......................................................... 158 Section 8: Higher-Order Conditioning ............................................................................................. 158 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 159 Chapter Feedback .............................................................................................................................. 160 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 160 References .......................................................................................................................................... 163 Chapter 4: Instrumental Conditioning.................................................................................................. 164 Section 1: Instrumental Conditioning .............................................................................................. 165 Thorndike’s Law of Effect .............................................................................................................. 165 Major Phenomena of Instrumental Conditioning ....................................................................... 169 SECTION QUIZ: Instrumental Conditioning ............................................................................... 171 SECTION REVIEW: Instrumental Conditioning......................................................................... 171 Section 2: Positive and Negative reinforcers ................................................................................. 171 Immediate and Delayed Consequences ..................................................................................... 173 Box 4.1: Application | Roediger and the Testing Effect ............................................................ 174 Shaping and Chaining ................................................................................................................... 175 SECTION QUIZ: Positive and Negative Reinforcers ................................................................ 177 SECTION REVIEW: Positive and Negative Reinforcers .......................................................... 177 Section 3: Complexities in Reinforcement...................................................................................... 178 The Complex Nature of Reinforcement ...................................................................................... 178 Schedules of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................ 180 Box 4.2: Application | Phone Checking Behaviour .................................................................... 185 Observational Learning ................................................................................................................. 185 SECTION QUIZ: Complexities in Reinforcement ...................................................................... 188 SECTION REVIEW: Complexities in Reinforcement ................................................................ 188 Final Thoughts on Learning .............................................................................................................. 189 Chapter Feedback .............................................................................................................................. 190 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 191 References .......................................................................................................................................... 193 Chapter 5: Language ........................................................................................................................... 195 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 195 Section 1: What Sets Language Apart? ..................................................................................... 196 Criteria for Language .................................................................................................................. 196 SECTION REVIEW: What Sets Language Apart? ................................................................ 199 Section 2: The Structure of Language ........................................................................................ 200 Morphemes: The Symbols of Language ................................................................................ 200 Phonemes: The Building Blocks of Symbols ....................................................................... 201 Grammar: The Rules for Constructing Sentences .............................................................. 202 Semantics: The Meaning of it All ............................................................................................. 204 SECTION QUIZ: The Structure of Language ......................................................................... 204 SECTION REVIEW: The Structure of Language ................................................................... 204 Section 3: Language Development ............................................................................................. 205 Universal Phonemic Sensitivity ............................................................................................... 206 Box 5.1: Application | Foreign Accent Syndrome ............................................................... 209 Early Language Skills ................................................................................................................. 212 Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary ................................................................................... 214 SECTION QUIZ: Language Development ............................................................................... 215 SECTION REVIEW: Language Development......................................................................... 215 Section 4: Further Characteristics of Language Development ........................................... 216 Characteristics of Early Language .......................................................................................... 216 Box 5.2: Application | Are bilingual children smarter? ...................................................... 218 The Whorfian Hypothesis .......................................................................................................... 219 SECTION QUIZ: Characteristics of Language Development ............................................ 220 SECTION REVIEW: Characteristics of Language Development ...................................... 221 Section 5: Theories of Language Development ....................................................................... 221 Social Learning Theory of Language Development ........................................................... 222 Innate Mechanism Theory of Language Development ....................................................... 223 Box 5.3: Application | Sign Language .................................................................................... 225 Interactionist Theories of Language Development ............................................................. 227 SECTION QUIZ: Theories of Language Development ........................................................ 227 SECTION REVIEW: Theories of Language Development .................................................. 228 Final Thoughts on Language ........................................................................................................ 228 What Makes Language Unique? .............................................................................................. 228 Chapter Feedback ............................................................................................................................ 230 Key Terms .......................................................................................................................................... 231 References ......................................................................................................................................... 233 Chapter 6: Attention ............................................................................................................................ 238 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 238 Section 1: What is Attention? ....................................................................................................... 239 SECTION REVIEW: What is Attention? .................................................................................. 240 Section 2: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing .................................................................. 241 Box 6.1: Automatic vs. Controlled Processing .................................................................... 243 SECTION QUIZ: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing .................................................... 244 SECTION REVIEW: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing .............................................. 244 Section 3: Tools to Measure Attention ....................................................................................... 244 Orienting and Spatial Cueing .................................................................................................... 245 Visual Search ................................................................................................................................ 247 Inattention Tasks .......................................................................................................................... 250 Box 6.2: Application / Keeping the Focus ............................................................................. 253 The Stroop Task ........................................................................................................................... 254 SECTION QUIZ: Tools to Measure Attention ........................................................................ 255 SECTION REVIEW: Tools to Measure Attention .................................................................. 256 Section 4: Models of Attention ..................................................................................................... 257 Attention as a Spotlight .............................................................................................................. 257 Attention as a Filter ..................................................................................................................... 257 SECTION QUIZ: Models of Attention ...................................................................................... 261 SECTION REVIEW: Models of Attention ................................................................................ 261 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 261 Chapter Feedback ............................................................................................................................ 262 Key Terms .......................................................................................................................................... 263 References ......................................................................................................................................... 265 Notes ................................................................................................................................................... 268 Chapter 7: Memory .............................................................................................................................. 269 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 269 Memory Terminology: Three Stages ....................................................................................... 270 Section 1: Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory ........................................................... 271 Sensory Memory .......................................................................................................................... 271 Short-Term Memory ..................................................................................................................... 272 SECTION QUIZ: Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory ............................................ 275 SECTION REVIEW: Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory ...................................... 275 Section 2: Long-Term Memory ..................................................................................................... 275 Proposed Subdivisions of Long-Term Memory ................................................................... 280 SECTION QUIZ: Long-Term Memory....................................................................................... 282 SECTION REVIEW: Long-Term Memory ................................................................................ 282 Section 3: General Principles of Memory .................................................................................. 282 Levels of Processing ................................................................................................................... 283 Encoding Specificity ................................................................................................................... 284 Transfer-Appropriate Processing ............................................................................................ 285 Box 7.1: Harnessing Principles of Memory for Effective Studying ................................ 286 SECTION QUIZ: General Principles of Memory ................................................................... 286 SECTION REVIEW: General Principles of Memory ............................................................. 286 Section 4: Forgetting ....................................................................................................................... 287 SECTION QUIZ: Forgetting ........................................................................................................ 290 SECTION REVIEW: Forgetting .................................................................................................. 290 Section 5: Memo