Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture (Disaster Resilience and Green Growth)

This book is related to disaster risk reduction in agriculture particularly under changing climate. Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the global climate. There is unequivocal evidence that Earth is warming at an unprecedented rate. Human activity is the principal cause. The planets average surface temperature has risen to about 1oC since the late 19th century and most of the warming occurred in the past 40 years. The years 2016 and 2020 are tied for the warmest year on the record. Similarly, other evidence of rapid climate change includes warming of oceans, shrinking of ice sheets, retreating glaciers, decreasing snow cover, rising of sea level, declining artic sea ice, increased frequency of extreme events, ocean acidification and loss of biodiversity. Hence, climate change impacts, both extreme weather and slow-onset events, have impacted several sectors of the national economies and activities, in particular agriculture and food production, augmented by other challenges be it geopolitical, cost of finance or supply chain related, and in a time of increased food insecurity. Without CO2 fertilization, effective adaptation, and genetic improvement, each degree-Celsius increase in global mean temperature would, on average, reduce global yields of wheat by 6.0%, rice by 3.2%, maize by 7.4%, and soybean by 3.1%. Hence this book is useful as a study material to teach in the field of agriculture and climate change. The book is useful for instructors and postgraduate as well as undergraduate students involved in the study of climate change. The book also provide guidance to multiple stakeholders to design mitigation and adaptation efforts to climate change and ensure food security in the developing world. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Editors and Contributors About the Editors Contributors Climate Change and Farming System: A Review of Status, Potentials, and Further Work Needs for Disaster Risk Reduction 1 Introduction 2 On-Farm Diversification: Key Components of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 3 Climate-Proof Crops in the Farming Systems 4 Climate Change and Farm-Level Adaptation 5 Smallholder Crop-Livestock System: Case Study in Sub-Saharan Africa 6 Farm Size in Pakistan and Climate Smart Agriculture 7 Conclusion References Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) 3 Natural Disaster 4 Global Climate Pattern 5 Measures to Reduce Hazard 5.1 Dikes or Dykes or Levees 5.2 Dams 5.3 Hill Torrent/Storm Water Control and Upstream Management 5.4 Underground Storage 6 Exposure and Vulnerability Management 6.1 Migration 6.2 Adverse Effects on Measurements of the Opposite Hazard 6.3 Agricultural Practices and Land Use Changes 6.4 Negative Effects of the Opposite Hazard on Measurements 6.5 Socioeconomic Factors of Vulnerability and Preparedness 6.6 Adverse Effects on Measurements of the Opposite Hazard 7 Conclusion References Agricultural Producers’ Behavioral Adaptation to Climate Change Disaster in Turkiye 1 Introduction 2 The Studies on Human Behavioral in the Combat Against Climate Change Disaster in Turkiye 3 Case Study from Nevşehir Province of Turkiye 3.1 Research Area 3.2 Sampling Method 3.3 Statistical Analyses 4 Research Findings 5 Conclusions and Recommendations References Water Management Strategies for Agricultural Disasters 1 Introduction 2 Agricultural Disaster Impact on the Economy 3 Flood Risk 3.1 Flood Losses 3.2 Flood Analysis and Forecasting Techniques 4 Flash Floods 5 Droughts 5.1 Causes of Drought 5.2 Drought Mechanism and Predictability 5.3 Drought Monitoring Indices 5.4 Spatial-Temporal Variation of Drought 5.5 Losses Due to Droughts 5.6 Drought Impact on Agriculture 5.7 Drought Impact on Crop Yield 6 Flood and Drought Management Strategies 6.1 Basin Scale Water Management 6.2 Interventions in Source Areas 6.3 Interventions in Plain Areas 6.4 Flood and Drought Management at Field Scale 7 Extreme Weather Disasters 7.1 Effect of Extreme Weather Conditions at Catchment Scale 7.2 Impact on Crop Yields in Irrigated Areas 7.3 Water Management Strategies for Extreme Weather Conditions 8 Salinity and Waterlogging 8.1 Waterlogging and Salinity Management 9 Conclusions References Disaster Impacts on Soils and Their Management 1 Introduction 2 Floods 2.1 Impact 2.2 Vulnerability to Flood Disasters 2.2.1 Physical Characteristics 2.2.2 Social Characteristics 2.3 Risk Management 2.4 Risk Analysis 2.4.1 SPRC Model 2.5 Risk Assessment 2.6 Risk Reduction 2.7 Permanent and Temporary Measures 2.8 Pre-flood Prevention 2.9 Flood Event Management 2.10 Post-flood Interventions 2.11 Management Practices for Flood Control 2.11.1 Woodland Management 2.11.2 River and Floodplain Management 2.11.3 Estuarine Management 2.11.4 Runoff Management 3 Erosion: A Slow-Onset Disaster 3.1 Impact 3.2 Vulnerability to Erosion 3.2.1 Physical Features 3.2.2 Social Characteristics 3.3 Erosion Assessment 3.3.1 Universal Soil Loss Model (USLE) Model 3.4 Measures for Erosion Reduction 3.5 Arable Land Conservation 3.6 Non-arable Land Management 3.7 Wind Erosion Measures 4 Drought 4.1 Impact 4.1.1 Vulnerability to Drought 4.1.2 Physical Characteristics 4.1.3 Social Characteristics 4.2 Risk Assessment 4.3 Probability of Hazard Loss 4.3.1 Model-Based Assessment 4.4 Flash Drought 4.4.1 Flash Drought Assessment 5 Wildfires 5.1 Impact 5.2 Risk Assessment 5.3 Pre-fire Management Practices 5.4 Post-fire Management Practices References Role of Soil Science in Mitigating Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters 1 Introduction 2 What Are Disasters? 2.1 Natural Disasters 2.2 Man-Made Disasters/Anthropogenic Disasters 2.3 Causes of Natural and Man-Made Disasters 2.3.1 Soil Erosion 2.3.2 Deforestation 2.3.3 Climate Change 2.3.4 Mining 2.3.5 Tectonic Movement 3 Effects of Disasters on the Ecosystem 3.1 Global Warming 3.2 Soil Degradation Concerning Soil Quality/Soil Fertility/Soil Salinity/Landscaping/Loss of Microbes/Community Structure 3.3 Glaciers Melting and Flooding 3.4 Food Security Challenges 4 Disaster Management 4.1 Soil Properties 4.2 Mulching 4.3 Landscaping and Vegetation Cover 4.4 Soil Fertility/Soil Health Improvement 4.5 Zero Tillage 4.6 Cultural Practices 4.7 Wind Breaks/Forestation 5 Conclusions References Role of Environmental Science for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture 1 Importance of the Agriculture Sector 2 Natural Disasters and Food Security Issues 2.1 Climate-Related Risks 2.1.1 Droughts and Extreme Heats 2.1.2 Flooding 2.2 Land Degradation 2.3 Pest Outbreak 2.4 Damage for Ecosystems 3 Role of Environmental Sciences in Disaster Risk Reduction for Agriculture 3.1 Management of Carbon Emissions 3.2 The Role of Beneficial Microorganisms in Soil Quality and Plant Health 3.2.1 Biofertilizers 3.2.2 Biopesticides 3.2.3 Bacillus spp. Beneficial for Plants 3.3 Different Techniques to Monitor Different Ecosystems 3.4 Importance of Geospatial Data 3.5 Management of Water Through Smart Irrigation and Precision Farming 3.5.1 Drought Monitoring 3.5.2 Forest Fire Surveillance 3.5.3 Floods Forecasting 3.5.4 Storm Prediction 3.5.5 Pest Monitoring Through Remote Sensing 3.6 Green Finance 4 Conclusion References Sustainable Development in Agriculture Beyond the Notion of Minimizing Environmental Impacts 1 Introduction 2 Natural Hazard-Induced Disasters (NHID) 3 Natural Disasters, Agriculture, and Losses 4 What Is Naturally Occurring Disaster? 5 Disasters Damage in Range Land and Forests 6 Natural Disasters and Economics 7 Can Natural Disasters Impact be Minimized? 7.1 Improved Use of Climate and Weather Information and Forecasts 7.2 Early Warning Systems 7.3 More Efficient Management of Land and Resources 8 Recommendation to Follow to Protect Farm During a Disaster 8.1 Recommendation-1: Identity Higher Ground Ahead of Flooding 8.2 Recommendation 2: Implement Land and Water Management Strategies During a Drought 8.3 Recommendation 3: Prepare for a Hurricane by Stocking Up on Essentials 8.4 Recommendation 4: Recognize and Relocate Fire Hazards 8.5 Recommendation 5: Utilize Biosecurity Measures to Cater Disease 9 Damage, Destruction, and Disaster 10 All About Drought 11 Possible Solution 12 Conclusion References Drought Stress in Crop Plants and Its Management 1 Introduction 2 Drought-Induced Yield Losses in Leading Field Crops 3 Impacts of Drought Stress on Different Growth Phases 3.1 Impact of Drought Stress on Seed Germination 3.2 Impact of Drought Stress on Plant Morphology 3.3 Impact of Drought Stress on Root Traits 3.4 Impact of Drought Stress on Yield 4 Management of Drought Stress 4.1 Development of Drought-Tolerant Cultivars 4.2 Nutrient Management and Organic Manure 4.3 Alternate Irrigation Techniques 4.4 Seed Priming 4.5 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and PGPR 5 Conclusions and Recommendations References Impact of Heat Stress on Cereal Crops and Its Mitigation Strategies 1 Introduction 2 Climate Change and Crop Response 2.1 Rice (Oryzae sativa L.) 2.2 Millet (Pannisetum glacum) 2.3 Maize (Zea maize) 2.4 Wheat (Triticum aestivum) 3 Production Status of Cereals Crops 4 Growing Conditions for Various Cereal Crops 4.1 Rice (Oryzae sativa L.) 4.2 Millet (Pannisetum glacum) 4.3 Maize (Zea maize) 4.4 Wheat (Triticum aestivum) 5 Food Security 6 Food Insecurity (2080s) 7 Food Utilization and Stability 8 Strategies to Mitigate Heat Stress for Improving Crop Production 8.1 Breeding Approach 8.2 Agronomic Methods 8.3 Heat-Tolerant Crops 9 Conclusions References Causes of Soil Erosion, Its Measurements, and Management 1 Soil Erosion 2 Global Perspective on Soil Erosion 3 Classification of Soil Erosion 3.1 Erosion Intensity 3.2 Scale of Soil Erosion 3.3 Impacts of Erosion 3.4 Processes of Erosion 4 Types of Erosion 4.1 Water Erosion 4.1.1 Sheet and Rill Erosion 4.1.2 Gully Erosion 4.1.3 Tunnel Erosion 4.1.4 Stream Bank Erosion 4.1.5 Floodplains Erosion 4.1.6 Mass Movement 4.1.7 Fluvial Erosion 4.1.8 Muddy Waters 4.1.9 Slips 4.1.10 Earth Flows 4.1.11 Splash Erosion 4.1.12 Underground Erosion 4.1.13 River Erosion 4.2 Wind Erosion 4.3 Scalding 5 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion 5.1 Vegetation and Soil Type 5.2 Role of Wind Velocity and Surface Runoff 5.3 Surface Topography and Slope Steepness 5.4 Construction and Urbanization 5.5 Mining 6 Soil Moisture Content, Organic Matter, and Soil Permeability 7 Transport and Off-Road Recreational Activities 8 Measurement of Soil Erosion 8.1 Plots 8.2 Surveying 8.2.1 Erosion Pins and Profilometers 8.2.2 Photogrammetry 8.2.3 Other Survey Methods 8.3 Tracers 9 Methods of Erosion Control 9.1 Agronomic Approaches 9.1.1 Contour Farming 9.1.2 Strip Cropping 9.1.3 Reduced Tillage 9.1.4 Cover Cropping 9.1.5 Mulching 9.1.6 Crop Diversification 9.1.7 Grass Strips 9.2 Structural Approaches 9.2.1 Retention Ditches 9.2.2 Stone Lines 9.2.3 Semi-Circular Bunds 9.2.4 Planting Pits 9.2.5 Terracing 9.2.6 Grassed Waterways 9.2.7 Retaining Walls 10 Conclusion References Management of Crops in Water-Logged Soil 1 Introduction 2 Causes of Soil Waterlogging 2.1 Extreme Precipitation 2.2 Human Alteration in Land Use 2.3 Over Irrigation/Rainfall after Irrigation 2.4 Increased Runoff From Slope 2.5 Soil Compaction 2.6 Claypan 2.7 Soil Preparation for Rice 3 Why Did Waterlogging Conditions Develop in Pakistan? 4 Waterlogging Stress: Physiological and Metabolic Processes in Plants 4.1 Oxygen Deprivation 4.2 Photosynthesis Rate 4.3 Root Hydraulic Conductance 4.4 Nutrient Absorption 5 Anatomical Adaptation 5.1 Formation of Aerenchyma 5.2 Adventitious Root Growth 5.3 Radial Oxygen Loss (ROL) Barrier 6 Signaling and Response to the Stress of Waterlogging 6.1 Phytohormone Signaling 6.2 Reactive Oxygen Species Accumulation (ROS) 7 Agronomic Practices to Grow the Crop in Waterlogged Soil 8 Modeling of Crops and Decision-Making Systems 9 Crop Management Practices 9.1 Application of Nutrients 9.2 Plant Growth Regulator 9.3 Pretreatment with Hydrogen Peroxide 9.4 Utilization of Tolerant Varieties and Species 9.5 Adjusting Dates of Planting 9.6 Use of Cover Crops 9.7 Using Conservation Tillage Techniques 10 Adaptive Water Management 10.1 Drainage Systems 10.1.1 Surface Drainage Raised Beds 10.1.2 Subsurface Drainage Horizontal Subsurface Drainage Tile Drainage Vertical Subsurface Drainage Mole Drains 11 Strategies Adopted in Pakistan 11.1 Bioremediation Strategies/Bio-Drainage 12 Conclusion References Climate Change Impact on Mangrove Forests in Pakistan 1 Introduction 2 Salient Services Provided by Mangrove Forests 2.1 Mangroves Ecosystem’s Contributions 2.2 Mangrove-Seagrass-Coral Reef Continuum 2.3 Breeding and Nursery Places 2.4 Habitat and Niches 2.5 Mangrove Food Web 2.6 Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Sinks 3 Status of Mangrove Forests of Pakistan 4 Indus Delta Mangroves 5 Species Diversity 6 Balochistan Mangroves 7 Deteriorating Factors 8 Manifestations of Climate Change 8.1 Biodiversity Loss 8.2 Decline in Area 8.3 Mangrove Swamp Destruction 8.4 High Salinity Impact 8.5 Reduction in Fresh Water Flow 8.6 Environmental Pollution 9 Implications of Loss of Mangroves 10 Conservation and Restoration of Mangroves Not an Option but a Way Forward References Climate Change, Flash Floods and Its Consequences: A Case Study of Gilgit-Baltistan 1 Introduction 2 Glacial Lake Formation in Karakoram Range (Gilgit-Baltistan) 3 Glacial Lake Outburst (GLO) 4 Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) 5 Study Area 6 Methodology 7 Results and Discussions 8 Impact of Flood on Biodiversity 9 Damage to Agriculture Land, Crop Productivity and Livestock 10 Damages to the Irrigation Channels 11 Damage Infrastructure and Shelters References Conservation Agriculture a Sustainable Approach for Disaster Risk Reduction in Rice Wheat Cropping System of Pakistan 1 Wheat Rice Cropping System Significance 2 Disasters and Its Impacts 3 Disasters in Rice–Wheat Cropping System 3.1 Unpredictable Risks of Climate and Weather 3.2 Drought Risk 3.3 Risk of Global Warming 3.4 Reduction in Water Availability 3.5 Risk of Soil Health 3.6 Disaster by Crop Residues Burning 3.7 Smog 3.8 Floods Disaster 3.9 Heat Wave Disaster 4 Farmer’s Perception Regarding Climatic and Natural Disasters 5 Conservation Agriculture as a Disaster Risk Reduction in Rice-Wheat Cropping System 5.1 History of No-Till/CA Farming in South Asia 5.2 Spread of Conservation Agriculture in South Asia 6 Conservation Agriculture Role as a Disaster Risk Reduction 6.1 Improvement in Water Use and Efficiency 6.2 Improvement in Soil Health 6.3 Land Productivity Improvement 6.4 Drought Reduction Through CA References Forestry a Way Forward for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 Forests and Nature Conservation 3 Disasters; Major Threat to Agriculture 3.1 Devastating Floods 3.2 Reasons and Impacts of Flood Disasters 3.3 Flood Risk Mitigating Measures 3.4 Role of Forests in Flood Control 4 Forests Mediated Disaster Prevention and Mitigation in Agriculture Sector 4.1 Forestry as a Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction Approach in Urban Agriculture 5 Impact of Disasters on Rural Economy 5.1 Why Forests Are Important for Global Poverty Alleviation? 5.1.1 “Agroforestry Tree Products (AFTPs): Targeting Poverty Reduction and Enhanced Livelihoods 6 Social Forestry an excellent Approach towards Nature Conservation 6.1 Social Forestry a Remarkable Solution for Sustainability and Disaster Management 6.1.1 Agroforestry a Realistic Approach for Disaster Risk Reduction 7 Conclusion References Risks of Deserts Locust and Its Mitigation 1 Introduction 2 Locusts in the World History 3 Polymorphism in Locusts 4 Life Cycle of a Desert Locust 4.1 Eggs 4.2 Hoppers 4.3 Adults 5 Climate Change and the Desert Locust 6 Climate Change and the Current Locust Crisis 7 Effects of Desert Locust Invasion 7.1 Food Security and Nutrition 7.2 Economic Development 7.3 Environment 8 Management Strategies 8.1 Cultural Control 8.2 Mechanical Control 8.3 Chemical Control 8.4 Microbial Control 8.4.1 Bacteria 8.4.2 Fungi 8.4.3 Virus 8.4.4 Microsporidia 9 Botanicals 10 Semiochemicals 11 Remote Sensing (RS) 12 Conclusion References Role of Horticulture in Disaster Risk Management 1 Introduction 2 Drought Management in Horticulture 2.1 Remote Sensing for Irrigation Optimization 2.2 Crop Water Status Indicators 2.3 Vegetable Grafting to Control Drought Stress 2.4 Deficit Irrigation 2.5 Mitigation of Climate Variability on Horticulture (Table 2) 3 Finding New Genetic Resources 4 Management of Production Technology 5 Soil and Its Management 6 Irrigation and Fertigation 7 Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) 7.1 Role of Biostimulants 7.2 Effect of Biostimulant in Heat Tolerance in Potato 8 Organic Horticulture 8.1 Use of Bioherbicide in Organic Horticulture 8.2 Bioherbicide Approach 8.2.1 Sources of Bioherbicides 9 Impact of Floods on Horticultural Crops 9.1 Flood Control in Horticultural Crops 9.2 Role of Silicon to Control Flooding 10 Conclusion References Disaster Hazards and Vulnerabilities in Agriculture: Role of Food Technologist 1 Introduction 2 Hazards, Disasters, and Risks 3 Hazards 3.1 Earthquakes 3.2 Droughts 3.3 Floods 3.4 Landslides 3.5 Tsunami 3.6 Cyclones/Storms 3.7 Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) 3.8 Avalanches 3.9 Transport and Industrial Accidents 3.10 Urban and Forest Fires 3.11 Civil Conflicts 4 Vulnerabilities 5 Dynamic Pressures 6 Population Growth and Size 7 Urbanization, Industrialization, and Environmental Degradation 8 Climate Change and Variability 9 Gender Power Imbalances 10 Future Disaster Trends in Pakistan 11 Urbanization in Pakistan 12 Livestock and Droughts in Balochistan 13 Role of Food Scientists in Natural Disasters 14 Role of Food Scientist in Emergency Food Supply Chain 15 Role of Food Science and Technology in Humanitarian Response 16 Role of Food Scientist and Food Technologist in Global Food Security 17 Conclusion References Role of Livestock for Disaster Risk Reduction 1 Introduction 2 Livestock Sector as Socioeconomic Device 3 Livestock Strength 4 Source and Strength of Livestock Sector in Disaster 5 Conclusion and Way Forward References Role of Social Sciences in Reducing Disaster Risk in Agriculture 1 Introduction 1.1 Disaster and Risk 2 Identification of Disaster Risks 3 Disaster Risk Management and Agriculture 4 Disasters and Sustainable Development Goals 5 Disaster Risk Reduction at Global Level (The Sendai Framework and SDGs) 6 Socioeconomic Assessment of Disaster Risk Management in Agriculture 7 Disaster and Risk Management 7.1 Risk Identification and Assessment 7.2 Disaster and Risk Management Frameworks in Agriculture 7.3 Crop and Livestock Insurance 7.4 Contingent Import Agreement (Call Option) 7.5 Contingent Export Agreement (Put Option) 7.6 Income Diversification 7.7 Disaster Payment and Relief Operations 7.8 Disaster Risk Management by Big Data Analytics 7.9 Supplemental Agricultural Disaster Assistance 8 Conclusion References Use of AI for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? 3 Application of AI in Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture 3.1 Natural Disaster Risk Reduction 3.1.1 Geophysical Disasters Risk Reduction 3.1.2 Climatological Disasters Risk Reduction 3.1.3 Hydrological Disasters Risk Reduction 3.1.4 Meteorological Disasters Risk Reduction 3.1.5 Biological Disasters Risk Reduction 4 Current Challenges and Ways Forward References Disaster Risk Reduction Through Agricultural Engineering Technologies 1 Introduction 2 Agricultural Engineering and Disasters 3 Disasters and Agriculture 3.1 Temperature 3.2 Storm 3.3 Flood 3.4 Drought 3.5 Earthquake 3.6 Landslide 3.7 Insect Infestation 3.8 Pandemics 4 Disaster Risk Reductions 5 Conclusions References Integrated Approach for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture Through Crop, Livestock, Forestry, Poultry, and Fish Farming 1 Introduction 1.1 Crops 1.2 Livestock 1.3 Fisheries 1.4 Forestry 1.5 Poultry Farming 2 Solutions to Disaster Reduction in Agriculture 2.1 Forests; as a Construction Material and Fire Wood 2.2 Forests as Replacement to Pastures 2.3 Fisheries; a Livelihood Asset to Manage Disaster Subversiveness 2.4 Small Scale Fishing and Coastal Fishing Communities Development 3 Conclusion and Recommendation References Key Challenges and Financial Needs to Promote Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Pakistan: A Case Study of Hunza, Pakistan 1 Introduction 2 Literature Review 3 Materials and Methods 3.1 Study Area 3.2 Data Collection and Sample Size 3.3 Questionnaire Designed 3.4 Conceptual Framework 4 Results and Discussions 4.1 Climate Change Impacts on the Agriculture Sector 4.2 Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture 4.2.1 Soil Conservation CSA Practices Implication 4.2.2 Water Conservation CSA Practices Implication 4.2.3 Use of Stress-Tolerant (Heat and Drought) Seeds 4.3 Key Challenges 4.3.1 Access to Finance and Difficulties 4.3.2 Lack of Sufficient Information and Knowledge Transmission 4.3.3 Poor Policy System and Deficiency of Government Investments 5 Recommendations 5.1 Utilization of Marginal and Fallow Land 5.2 Assistance of Microfinancing for the Implementation of Climate-Smart Agriculture 5.3 Education Empowerment and Capacity Building 5.4 Policy Support and Role of Government for the Implementation of Climate-Smart Agriculture 6 Conclusion References Progressive Efforts in the Implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Uganda 1 Introduction 2 Literature Review 2.1 Urban Water Supply in Uganda 3 Materials and Methods 3.1 Study Area 3.1.1 Subsection Publication Per Year 3.1.2 Literature Selection, Screening and Extraction 4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Author Trend Analysis in Uganda 4.2 Analysis of Country Network (ACN) 4.3 Analysis of Sources of Journal Publication 4.4 Analysis by the Organizations 5 Conclusion References