Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria (Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora, Vol 2)

No African country has tried so hard or for so long to create a lasting democratic system as has Nigeria, but success has been elusive. Political transition to democracy, under the auspices of a series of authoritarian military governments, has been prolonged and lacking in outcome; vast sums of money, and an increasing number of Nigerian lives, have been sacrificed, and the more intangible costs -to the relations among and between the country's complex mosaic of ethnicities, religions andregions, and to Nigeria's international relations - have been incalculable. Increasingly, the dilemma of democracy has become the axis around which all of Nigeria's public questions revolve. This book offers an innovative, multidisciplinary study of the historical, social and economic roots of both the effort and the failure to create democracy in Nigeria; it includes contributions by 13 of Nigeria's best politicalanalysts. Major episodes of transition to democracy (both ultimately unsuccessful) are studied in detail; new interpretations of the patterns of regional and ethnic interaction and conflict are developed; and the outlooks for democracy, internal peace and continued national existence are assessed. Contributors: __FUNSO AFOLAYAN, ADIGUN AGBAJE, SABO BAKO, PAUL BECKETT, PETER EKEH, DAVID EMELIFEONWU, TOYIN FALOLA, ALEX GBOYEGA, JIBRIN IBRAHIM, RICHARD JOSEPH, PETER LEWIS, OYELEYE OYEDIRAN, JOHN PADEN, RICHARD SKLAR, ROTIMI SUBERU, CHUDI UWASURIKE, OLUFEMI VAUGHN, PAT AMA TOKUNBO WILLIAMS, CRAWFORD YOUNG__ Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria 2 CONTENTS 4 LIST OF TABLES 7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 8 PREFACE 12 Note 13 INTRODUCTION: BEYOND THE IMPASSE OF "PERMANENT TRANSITION" IN NIGERIA 14 The Scope of the Effort—and of the Failure 14 The Overlooked Interest of the Nigerian Case 15 Democracy and the Legitimacy of Military Rule: The Nigerian Paradox 16 The Anatomy of Permanent Transition 18 The Impasse of Permanent Transition 20 Beyond Permanent Transition 23 Notes 24 References 25 PART 1— HISTORY AND SOCIETY 26 1— Crises and Transitions in the Political History of Independent Nigeria 27 Abubakar Tafawa Balewa's Crisis, 1962–1966 28 Transition: Ironsi, Gowon, the Civil War, and Oil 32 Olusegun Obasanjo's Crisis, 1976 35 Transition: The Second Republic 37 Shehu Shagari's Crisis, 1983 39 Transition: Which Way? 41 Ibrahim Babangida's Crisis, 1990 44 Transition: Towards a Third Republic, but in Vain 46 Sani Abacha's Crisis, 1993– 50 References 54 2— Nigeria: A Political Entity and a Society 57 Colonial Rule and the Creation of Modern Nigeria 58 Independence and the Emergence of Nigeria As a Conglomerate Society 60 Primordial Loyalties, Ideologies and the Consolidation of Social Distance 63 Pluralism and Intra-Elite Struggle for Power and Dominance 66 Creating a More Perfect Union: Challenges and Prospects 69 References 72 PART 2— THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 75 3— Permanent Transition and Changing Conjuncture: Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria in Comparative Pe... 76 Notes 91 References 92 4— The Concept of Second Liberation and the Prospects of Democracy in Africa: A Nigerian Context 94 Two Meanings of Freedom in African History 95 The "First Liberation": Africans' Struggle for Collective Freedom from Colonial Rule 99 Post-Colonial Nationhood and the Abuses of Collective Freedom 104 The Absence of Individualism and the Destiny of Democracy in Africa 104 Fragmented Public Spheres and the Problems of Democracy in Africa 106 The Second Liberation: The Search for Individuals' Freedom from Domestic Tyranny 108 Problems Confronting the Struggle for Second Liberation 109 Issues and Principles of the Second Liberation Movement 111 Strategies and Solutions for Achieving the Goals of Second Liberation Movement 112 Rethinking the Sovereignty of African Nations 113 Notes 114 References 117 5— Legitimizing Democracy: The Role of the Highly Educated Elite 122 The Highly Educated Elite in Post-independence Nigeria 124 The Political Culture of an Elite-in-Training: Ambivalent Democrats 129 A Cycle of Ambivalence: 1975–1983 132 A Second Cycle of Ambivalence: 1985–1993 136 Cycles of Elite Ambivalence and Permanent Transition 138 The Present and the Future 140 Notes 142 References 143 PART 3— THE FAILURE OF TRANSITION 146 6— Democratization under Military Rule and Repression in Nigeria 147 The Consolidation of a Prebendal Republic 149 Babangida's Bogus Transition 150 Military-Civilian Alternation in Power 152 Alternatives to Another Superficial Transition 154 The Missed Opportunity of June 12 1993 157 Beyond Military Overrule 159 Conclusion 161 Notes 162 References 163 7— Obstacles to Democratization Nigeria 165 The Obstacles Posed by the Patrimonial and Rentier State 166 The Military Obstacle 170 Conclusion 182 References 182 8— Transition without End: From Hope to Despair—Reflections of a Participant-Observer 185 The First and Second Transitions 186 The Third Transition: From Transition to Transition 188 The Fourth Transition: From Crisis to Despair 194 Conclusion 199 References 201 9— 1993: Crisis and Breakdown of Nigeria's Transition to Democracy 203 Behind the Annulment 204 After the Annulment 210 Conclusion 219 Notes 220 References 224 PART 4— IDENTITIES AND CONTEXTS 227 10— Women and the Dilemma of Politics in Nigeria 228 Background to Women and Nigerian Politics 229 Nigerian Women in the Colonial Period 232 Nigerian Women in the Post-Colonial Period under Democratic Regimes 233 Nigerian Women in the First and Second Military Regimes 235 Women and the Babangida Administration 237 Women and the Abacha Administration 242 Conclusion 247 References 249 11— Nigerian Unity and the Tensions of Democracy: Geo-Cultural Zones and North-South Legacies 251 Introduction 251 Background on North-South Relations 252 The Idea of Six Geo-Cultural Zones 254 Dyadic Relations of Geo-Cultural Zones in "North" and "South" 256 The 1979 and 1983 Presidential Elections 259 The 1993 Presidential Elections 262 Geo-Cultural Identities and Coalition Building (1993) 264 Implications of the 1993 Experience 265 The Idea of Zonal Power Sharing and Rotation 266 Geo-Cultural Zones and "North-South" Federalism Issues 268 Conclusions 271 Notes 271 References 271 12— Christian Radicalism and Nigerian Politics 273 The Religious Factor 274 Confrontation with Islam 278 Distribution of Power 281 The Politics of Interest 282 Implications for Democracy 283 Acknowledgments: 288 Notes 289 References 289 13— Muslims, State, and The Struggle for Democratic Transition in Nigeria: From Cooperation to Confl... 291 Introduction 291 Militarism and Religiosity 292 The Religious Context and Patterns of Democratic Transitions 296 Religion in Second Republic Politics 298 Babangida and New Transition 299 The Abacha Period 305 Conclusion 306 Notes 306 References 307 14— Politics and the Economy: A Downward Spiral 310 Background to Reform: Crisis and Stabilization 311 Babangida and the SAP 313 The Unsteady Path of Reform 315 The Political Management of Adjustment 316 Uncertainty and Weakening Reform, 1990–92 319 Transition Crisis and the Collapse of Adjustment, 1993–94 321 The Changing Contours of the Political Economy 325 The Emergence of Predatory Rule 327 Conclusion 329 Notes 330 References 331 PART 5— INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS 334 15— Politics and the Search for Accommodation in Nigeria: Will Rotational Consociationalism Suffice?... 335 Strategies of the 1995 Constitution 336 Nigerian Political Thought: Five Dominant Tendencies 337 The Anglo-American Fixation 338 Neo-Corporatist Ethno-Regionalism 339 Military-Bureaucratic Developmentalism 339 The Dyarchy Realpolitik Option 340 Rotational Exercise of Power 340 The 1995 Constitution: Towards a Consociational Future? 342 A Consociational Fourth Republic: Will It Work? 344 Notes 345 References 346 16— Federalism, Ethnicity and Regionalism in Nigeria 347 Power-Sharing and the Federal Character Principle 349 The Politics of Revenue Sharing 353 How Many States and Localities? 359 Alternative Political Options for Nigeria 362 Conclusion 364 References 365 17— Party Systems and Civil Society 367 Concepts As Key 368 Party Systems and Civil Society in Nigeria 371 Conclusion 384 References 389 18— Local Institutions, Civil Society and Democratization in Nigeria, 1986–1993 394 The Philosophy of the Transition 395 Civil Society under the Transition Program 401 Civil Society and Democratization 408 Government's Reaction 412 Conclusion 413 References 414 19— Traditional Rulers and the Dilemma of Democratic Transitions in Nigeria 417 The Political Context of "Traditional Rulership" in Post-Colonial Nigeria 419 Traditional Rulers and the Buhari Regime, 1984–1985 422 Traditional Rulers and the Babangida Regime, 1985–1993 424 Traditional Rulers and the Political Bureau, 1986–1988 428 Conclusion 434 Notes 435 References 436 INDEX 439 A 439 B 440 C 441 D 443 E 443 F 444 G 445 H 445 I 445 J 446 K 446 L 446 M 447 N 448 O 449 P 449 Q 450 R 450 S 451 T 452 U 453 W 453 Y 454 No African country has tried so hard or for so long to create a lasting democratic system as has Nigeria, but success has been elusive. Political transition to democracy, under the auspices of a series of authoritarian military governments, has been prolonged and lacking in outcome; vast sums of money, and an increasing number of Nigerian lives, have been sacrificed, and the more intangible costs -to the relations among and between the country's complex mosaic of ethnicities, religions andregions, and to Nigeria's international relations - have been incalculable. Increasingly, the dilemma of democracy has become the axis around which all of Nigeria's public questions revolve.This book offers an innovative, multidisciplinary study of the historical, social and economic roots of both the effort and the failure to create democracy in Nigeria; it includes contributions by 13 of Nigeria's best politicalanalysts. Major episodes of transition to democracy (both ultimately unsuccessful) are studied in detail; new interpretations of the patterns of regional and ethnic interaction and conflict are developed; and the outlooks for democracy, internal peace and continued national existence are assessed.Professor PAUL A. BECKETT is Assistant Dean of International Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; CRAWFORD YOUNG is H. Edwin Young and Rupert Emerson Professor of Political Science at the University of Wisonsin-Madison.Contributors: FUNSO AFOLAYAN, ADIGUN AGBAJE, SABO BAKO, PAUL BECKETT, PETER EKEH, DAVID EMELIFEONWU, TOYIN FALOLA, ALEX GBOYEGA, JIBRIN IBRAHIM, RICHARD JOSEPH, PETER LEWIS, OYELEYE OYEDIRAN, JOHN PADEN, RICHARD SKLAR, ROTIMI SUBERU, CHUDI UWASURIKE, OLUFEMI VAUGHN, PAT AMA TOKUNBO WILLIAMS, CRAWFORD YOUNG No African country has tried so hard or for so long to create a lasting democratic system as has Nigeria, but success has been elusive. Political transition to democracy, under the auspices of a series of authoritarian military governments, has been prolonged and lacking in outcome; vast sums of money, and an increasing number of Nigerian lives, have been sacrificed, and the more intangible costs -to the relations among and between the country's complex mosaic of ethnicities, religions andregions, and to Nigeria's international relations - have been incalculable. Increasingly, the dilemma of democracy has become the axis around which all of Nigeria's public questions revolve. This book offers an innovative, multidisciplinary study of the historical, social and economic roots of both the effort and the failure to create democracy in Nigeria; it includes contributions by 13 of Nigeria's best politicalanalysts. Major episodes of transition to democracy (both ultimately unsuccessful) are studied in detail; new interpretations of the patterns of regional and ethnic interaction and conflict are developed; and the outlooks for democracy, internal peace and continued national existence are assessed. Professor PAUL A. BECKETT is Assistant Dean of International Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; CRAWFORD YOUNG is H. Edwin Young and Rupert Emerson Professor of Political Science at the University of Wisonsin-Madison. FUNSO AFOLAYAN, ADIGUN AGBAJE, SABO BAKO, PAUL BECKETT, PETER EKEH, DAVID EMELIFEONWU, TOYIN FALOLA, ALEX GBOYEGA, JIBRIN IBRAHIM, RICHARD JOSEPH, PETER LEWIS, OYELEYE OYEDIRAN, JOHN PADEN, RICHARD SKLAR, ROTIMI SUBERU, CHUDI UWASURIKE, OLUFEMI VAUGHN, PAT AMA TOKUNBO WILLIAMS, CRAWFORD YOUNG Through essays by 19 leading political analysts of Nigeria, this book offers an innovative, multidisciplinary study of the historical, social, and economic roots of both the effort and failure to create democracy in Nigeria. Two major episodes of transition to democracy (both ultimately unsuccessful) are studied in detail, as are the ingenious provisions of Nigeria's three democratic constitutions. New interpretations of the pattern of regional and ethnic interaction and conflict are developed, as is a fascinating view of the inter-relation between military rule and resurgent religious strife. The outlooks - for democracy, internal peace, and continued national existence - are assessed.