Dietary Chinese Herbs : Chemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Evidence

Foreword I 5 Foreword II 7 Preface 9 Contents 11 Editors and Contributors 19 Part I Introduction 27 1 A Brief History of Dietary Chinese Herbs 28 References 45 2 Food and Nutraceutical Applications of Chinese Herbal Products 47 2.1 Introduction 47 2.2 Regulation of Dietary Use of Herbal Remedies in Canada, USA and European Union 48 2.2.1 Natural Health Product Regulation in Canada 48 2.2.2 Botanical Products and Their Regulation in the U.S. and European Union 49 2.3 Randomized Clinical Trials Using Dietary Herbs and/or Active Ingredients and Their Limitations 50 2.4 Market Trends in the Functional Foods and Natural Health Products Industry 53 2.4.1 Patents with Herbs 54 2.4.2 Food Products with Added Herbs 55 2.4.3 Natural Health Products Based on Herbal Remedies: What Is on the Market? 55 2.5 Conclusion 61 References 61 Part II Root, Rhizome, Tuber, and Bulb Materials 66 3 Achyranthes bidentata Bl. 725B819D (Niuxi, Twotooth Achyranthes Root) 67 3.1 Botanical Identity 67 3.2 Chemical Constituents 68 3.2.1 Saponins 68 3.2.2 Phytoecdysones 68 3.2.3 Polysaccharides 69 3.3 Pharmacological Studies 70 3.4 Applications and Dietary Usage 71 3.4.1 Applications 71 3.4.2 Dietary Usages 71 3.4.2.1 Niuxi Wine 71 3.4.2.2 Niuxi Used in Medicated Foods 72 3.5 Clinical Evidences 72 3.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 73 References 73 4 Alisma orientalis (Sam.) Juzep. 6CFD6CFB (Zexie, Alismatis Rhizoma) 75 4.1 Botanical Identity 75 4.2 Chemical Constituents 76 4.2.1 Triterpenoids 76 4.2.2 Sesquiterpenes 77 4.3 Pharmacological Studies 77 4.3.1 Diuretic Effect 77 4.3.2 Inhibition of Kidney Stones 77 4.3.3 Improvement of the Cardiovascular System 77 4.3.4 Enhancing Immunity and Anti-inflammation 78 4.3.5 Lipotropic Effect 78 4.3.6 Promoting Weight Loss 78 4.3.7 Digestive Disorders 79 4.3.8 Anti-migration Activity 79 4.3.9 Other Pharmacological Activities 79 4.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 79 4.5 Side Effects and Toxicity 80 References 80 5 Alpinia officinarum Hance 9AD8826F59DC (Gaoliangjiang, galangal) 82 5.1 Botanical Identity 82 5.2 Chemical Constituents 83 5.2.1 Diarylheptanoids 83 5.2.2 Flavonoids 83 5.2.3 Essential Oils 84 5.3 Pharmacological Studies 84 5.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 85 5.4.1 TCM Applications 85 5.4.2 Dietary Usages 85 5.4.2.1 Gaoliangjiang Teas 86 5.4.2.2 Gaoliangjiang Wine [12] 86 5.4.2.3 Gaoliangjiang Used in Medicated Foods 86 5.5 Clinical Evidences 86 5.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 87 References 87 6 Angelica dahurica (Fish. ex Hoffm.) Benth. et Hook. f. 767D82B7 (Baizhi, Chinese Angelica) 89 6.1 Botanical Identity 89 6.2 Chemical Constituents 90 6.3 Pharmacological Studies 91 6.4 Applications and Dietary Usage 92 6.4.1 Applications 92 6.4.2 Dietary Usages 92 6.5 Clinical Evidences 93 6.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 93 References 94 7 Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels 5F535F52 (Danggui, Dongkuai) 95 7.1 Botanical Identity 95 7.2 Chemical Constituents 96 7.2.1 Small Molecules 96 7.2.2 Polysaccharides 97 7.3 Pharmacological Studies 97 7.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 98 7.4.1 TCM Applications [10] 98 7.4.2 Dietary Usage 98 7.4.2.1 Danggui Wine 99 7.4.2.2 Danggui Teas 99 7.4.2.3 Danggui Used in Medicinal Foods 99 7.5 Clinical Evidences 100 7.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data [17] 100 References 101 8 Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. 592951AC (Tiandong, Chinese Asparagus) 103 8.1 Botanical Identity 103 8.2 Chemical Constituents 103 8.3 Pharmacological Studies 104 8.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 105 8.4.1 TCM Applications 105 8.4.2 Dietary Usages 106 8.4.2.1 Tiandong Tea 106 8.4.2.2 Tiandong Wine 106 8.4.2.3 Tiandong Maidong Snow Pear Soup 106 8.4.2.4 Sugar-Free Tiandong Sweetmeat 106 8.4.2.5 Tiandong Black Bean Porridge 107 8.5 Clinical Evidences 107 8.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issues 107 References 107 9 Astragalus membranaceus 9EC482AA (Huangqi, Milkvetch Root) 109 9.1 Botanical Identity 109 9.2 Chemical Constituents 110 9.2.1 Flavonoids 110 9.2.2 Triterpenoid Saponins 111 9.2.3 Polysaccharides 112 9.2.4 Quantitative Determination 112 9.3 Pharmacological Studies 113 9.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 113 9.4.1 TCM Applications 113 9.4.2 Dietary Usages 114 9.4.2.1 Huangqi Tea 114 9.4.2.2 Huangqi Porridge 114 9.4.2.3 Huangqi-Danggui Tea 115 9.4.2.4 Huangqi Wine 115 9.4.2.5 Huangqi-Gouqi Tea 115 9.4.2.6 Huangqi-Honey Drink 115 9.4.2.7 Huangqi-Shandi Porridge 116 9.4.2.8 Shenqi-Dazao Porridge 116 9.4.2.9 Huangqi-Chicken Soup 116 9.5 Clinical Evidences 116 9.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 116 References 117 10 Codonopsis pilosula 515A53C2 (Dangshen, Pilose Asiabell) 119 10.1 Botanical Identity 119 10.2 Chemical Constituents 120 10.2.1 Carbohydrates and Glycosides 120 10.2.2 Polyacetylene Glucosides 120 10.2.3 Others 121 10.3 Pharmacological Studies 122 10.3.1 Effects on Digestive System 122 10.3.2 Effects on Cardiovascular System 122 10.3.3 Other 122 10.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 122 10.4.1 TCM Applications 122 10.4.1.1 Wuwei Yigong Powder [7] 123 10.4.1.2 Shenling Baizhu Powder [8] 123 10.4.1.3 Sijunzi Decoction [9] 123 10.4.1.4 Buzhong Yiqi Decoction [9] 123 10.4.2 Dietary Usages 124 10.4.2.1 Dangshen Frog Decoction 124 10.4.2.2 Dangshen Wuweizi Pork Liver Porridge 124 10.4.2.3 Dangshen Kuxingren Pork Lung Soup 124 10.4.2.4 Dangshen Tea 124 10.5 Clinical Evidences 124 10.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 125 References 125 11 Curcuma longa L. 59DC9EC4 (Jianghuang, Common Turmeric) 126 11.1 Botanical Identity 126 11.2 Chemical Constituents 126 11.2.1 Sesquiterpenes 127 11.2.2 Curcuminoids 127 11.3 Pharmacological Studies 128 11.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 128 11.4.1 TCM Applications 129 11.4.2 Dietary Uses 129 11.4.2.1 Curry 130 11.4.2.2 Spice in Diet 130 11.4.2.3 Natural Food Additive 130 11.5 Quality Evaluation and Assurance 130 11.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issues 131 References 131 12 Dioscorea opposite Thunb. 5C71836F (Shanyao, Chinese Yam) 132 12.1 Botanical Identity 132 12.2 Chemical Constituents 133 12.2.1 Dioscorin 133 12.2.2 Diosgenin and Dioscin 134 12.3 Pharmacological Studies 135 12.3.1 Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) 135 12.3.2 Hyperlipidemia 135 12.3.3 Hypoglycemic Effect 136 12.3.4 Reno- and Hepato-Protective Effects 137 12.3.5 Improvement of Gastrointestinal Function 137 12.3.6 Radio Protective Effect 138 12.3.7 Delayed Aging 138 12.3.8 Immunological Activity 139 12.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 139 12.4.1 TCM Applications 139 12.4.2 Dietary Usages 140 12.5 Clinical Evidences 140 12.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 141 References 142 13 Gastrodia elata Blume. 59299EBB (Tianma, Gastrodia Tuber) 145 13.1 Botanical Identity 145 13.2 Chemical Constituents 146 13.3 Pharmacological Studies 148 13.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 148 13.4.1 TCM Applications 148 13.4.2 Dietary Usages [8] 149 13.4.2.1 Tianma Wine 149 13.4.2.2 Tianma Tea 149 13.4.2.3 Tianma Used as Culinary and Dietary Material 149 13.5 Clinical Evidences 150 13.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 150 References 151 14 Glycyrrhiza uralensis 75188349 (Gancao, Licorice) 152 14.1 Botanical Identity 152 14.2 Chemical Constituents 153 14.2.1 Triterpenoid Saponins 154 14.2.2 Flavanoids 154 14.2.3 Coumarins 155 14.2.4 Alkaloid 156 14.3 Pharmacological Studies 156 14.3.1 Anti-inflammatory Effects 156 14.3.2 Hepatoprotection 156 14.3.3 Immunomodulatory Effects 157 14.3.4 Antitumor Effects 157 14.3.5 Neurogenesis Protective Effects 157 14.3.6 Estrogenic Effects 158 14.3.7 Anti-metabolic Syndrome 158 14.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 158 14.4.1 TCM Applications 159 14.4.2 Dietary Usages 159 14.5 Clinical Evidences 160 14.5.1 Anti-hepatitis 160 14.5.2 GI Function 160 14.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issues 161 References 161 15 Lilium lancifolium 767E5408 (Baihe, Tiger Lily) 163 15.1 Botanical Identity 163 15.2 Chemical Constituents 164 15.3 Pharmacological Studies 165 15.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 166 15.4.1 TCM Applications 166 15.4.2 Dietary Usages 166 15.4.3 Soup and Tea 167 15.5 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity 167 References 167 16 Morinda officinalis How 5DF4621F5929 (Bajitian) 169 16.1 Botanical Identity 169 16.2 Chemical Constituents 170 16.2.1 Anthraquinones 170 16.2.2 Iridoids 170 16.2.3 Oligosaccharides 171 16.3 Pharmacological Studies 172 16.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 172 16.4.1 TCM Applications 172 16.4.2 Dietary Usages 173 16.4.2.1 Bajitian Teas [16] 173 16.4.2.2 Bajitian Wine [17] 174 16.4.2.3 Bajitian Used in Medicated Foods 174 16.5 Clinical Evidences 174 16.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 175 References 175 17 Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker-Gawl. 9EA651AC (Maidong, Fountain Plant) 177 17.1 Botanical Identity 177 17.2 Chemical Constituents 178 17.2.1 Saponins 178 17.2.2 Flavonoids 178 17.3 Pharmacological Studies 179 17.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 180 17.4.1 TCM Applications 180 17.4.2 Dietary Usages 180 17.4.2.1 Juhua Maidong Tea 180 17.4.2.2 Moli Maidong Tea 180 17.4.2.3 Maidong Wine 181 17.4.2.4 Maidong Milk 181 17.5 Clinical Evidences 181 17.6 Safety Evaluation 181 References 182 18 Paeonia lactiflora Pall. 828D836F (Shaoyao, Chinese Herbaceous Peony) 183 18.1 Botanical Identity 183 18.2 Chemical Constituents 184 18.3 Pharmacological Studies 184 18.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 186 18.4.1 TCM Applications 186 18.4.2 Dietary Usages 186 18.4.2.1 Shaoyao Wine 186 18.4.2.2 Shaoyao Used in Medicated Foods 187 18.5 Clinical Evidences 187 18.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 187 References 188 19 Panax ginseng 4EBA53C2 (Renshen, Ginseng) 190 19.1 Botanical Identity 190 19.2 Chemical Constituents 191 19.2.1 Saponins 191 19.2.1.1 Protopanaxadiol Protopanaxadiols (PPD) 192 19.2.1.2 Protopanaxatriol Protopanaxatriols (PPT) 192 19.2.1.3 Oleanolic Acid Type 193 19.2.1.4 Ocotillol Type 193 19.2.2 Polysaccharides 193 19.2.3 Polyynes 193 19.2.4 Flavonoids and Volatile Oil 193 19.3 Pharmacological Studies 193 19.3.1 Effects on the CNS 194 19.3.2 Effects on Cardiovascular System 194 19.3.3 Effects on Growth and Intermediary Metabolism 194 19.3.4 Anti-hyperglycemic Effects 194 19.3.5 Anti-cancer Effect 194 19.3.6 Anti-aging Effects 195 19.3.7 Anti-ulcer Effect 195 19.3.8 Anti-obesity Effect 195 19.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 196 19.4.1 TCM Applications 196 19.4.2 Dietary Usages 196 19.4.2.1 Ginseng Wine 196 19.4.2.2 Ginseng Used in Medicated Foods 197 19.5 Clinical Evidences 197 19.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 197 References 198 20 Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen 4E094E03 (Sanqi, Notoginseng) 200 20.1 Botanical Identity 200 20.2 Chemical Constituents 201 20.2.1 Saponins 201 20.2.2 Other Constituents 202 20.3 Pharmacological Studies 202 20.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 204 20.4.1 TCM Applications 204 20.4.2 Dietary Usages 205 20.4.2.1 Sanqi Wine 206 20.4.2.2 Sanqi Used in Medicated Foods 206 20.5 Clinical Evidences 206 20.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 207 References 207 21 Panax quinquefolius L. 897F6D0B53C2 (Xiyangshen, American Ginseng) 209 21.1 Botanical Identity 209 21.2 Chemical Constituents 210 21.2.1 Saponins 210 21.2.2 Polysaccharides 213 21.3 Pharmacological Studies 213 21.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 213 21.4.1 TCM Applications 213 21.4.2 Dietary Usages 214 21.4.2.1 American Ginseng Teas 214 21.4.2.2 American Ginseng Porridge 214 21.4.2.3 American Ginseng Used in Medicated Foods 215 21.5 Clinical Evidences 215 21.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 215 References 216 22 Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. 68546897 (Jiegeng, Balloonflower) 218 22.1 Botanical Identity 218 22.2 Chemical Constituents 219 22.3 Pharmacological Studies 220 22.3.1 Antitussive and Expectorant Activities 220 22.3.2 Anti-inflammatory Activities 221 22.3.3 Hepatoprotective Activities 221 22.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 221 22.4.1 TCM Applications 221 22.4.1.1 Jiegeng Decoction 222 22.4.1.2 Yinqiao Powder 222 22.4.1.3 Xuefu Zhuyu Decoction 222 22.4.1.4 Shenling Baizhu Powder 222 22.4.2 Dietary Usages 223 22.4.2.1 Jiegeng Gruel 223 22.4.2.2 Jiegeng Tea 223 22.4.2.3 Jiegeng Mushroom Soup 223 22.4.2.4 Runfei Zhike Tea 223 22.5 Clinical Evidences 224 22.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 224 References 224 23 Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua 9EC47CBE (Huangjing) 226 23.1 Botanical Identity 226 23.2 Chemical Constituents 227 23.2.1 Poly- and Oligosaccharides 227 23.2.2 Steroidsaponins 227 23.3 Pharmacological Studies 228 23.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 228 23.4.1 TCM Applications 228 23.4.2 Dietary Usages 229 23.4.2.1 Huangjing Tea 229 23.4.2.2 Huangjing Wine 229 23.4.2.3 Huangjing Used in Medicated Foods 230 23.5 Clinical Evidences 230 23.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 230 References 231 24 Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce 73897AF9 (Yuzhu) 232 24.1 Botanical Identity 232 24.2 Chemical Constituents 233 24.2.1 Polygonatum Odoratum Polysaccharide 233 24.2.2 Steroidal Saponins 234 24.3 Pharmacological Studies 235 24.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 235 24.4.1 TCM Applications 235 24.4.2 Dietary Usage 236 24.5 Clinical Evidences 236 24.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 237 References 237 25 Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. 4F5599964E4C (Heshouwu, Tuber Fleeceflower Root) 239 25.1 Botanical Identity 239 25.2 Chemical Constituents [1, 4] 240 25.2.1 Stilbene Glycosides 240 25.2.2 Anthraquinones 241 25.2.3 Phospholipids 242 25.2.4 Carbohydrate Compounds 242 25.2.5 Other Compounds 242 25.3 Pharmacological Studies [1] 242 25.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 243 25.4.1 TCM Applications [7] 243 25.4.2 Dietary Usages [8] 243 25.4.2.1 Heizhima Shanyao Heshouwu Powder 243 25.4.2.2 Pig Liver Steamed with Prepared Heshouwu 244 25.4.2.3 Hen Steamed by Prepared Heshouwu 244 25.4.2.4 Heshouwu Cishen Soup 244 25.5 Quality Evaluation and Assurance [7] 244 25.6 Clinical Evidences 245 25.7 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 245 References 246 26 Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi 845B6839 (Gegen, Kudzu) 247 26.1 Botanical Identity 247 26.2 Chemical Constituents 248 26.3 Pharmacological Studies 248 26.3.1 Cardiovascular Diseases 249 26.3.2 Diabetic and Diabetic Complications 250 26.3.3 Phytoestrogenic Activity 251 26.3.4 Treatment of Excessive Alcohol Intake 251 26.3.5 Others 251 26.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 251 26.4.1 TCM Applications 251 26.4.2 Dietary Usages 252 26.4.2.1 Gegen Wine 252 26.4.2.2 Gegen Tea and Gegen Drink 253 26.4.2.3 Other Gegen Foods 253 26.5 Clinical Evidences 254 26.5.1 Cardiovascular Diseases 254 26.5.2 Cerebrovascular Diseases 254 26.5.3 Hyperlipidaemia 255 26.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 255 References 256 27 Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. 57309EC4 (Dihuang, Rehmannia) 258 27.1 Botanical Identity 258 27.2 Chemical Constituents 258 27.2.1 Carbohydrates 259 27.2.2 Iridoid Glycosides 259 27.2.3 Other Components 260 27.3 Pharmacological Studies 260 27.3.1 Anti-oxidant and Anti-aging 260 27.3.2 Enhancing Immunity 260 27.3.3 Lowering Blood Glucose 261 27.3.4 Anti-mutation and Anti-cancer 261 27.3.5 Neuroprotection and Other Effects on Nervous System 261 27.3.6 Promoting the Recovery of Hematopoiesis 262 27.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 262 27.4.1 TCM Applications 262 27.4.2 Dietary Usages 263 27.4.2.1 Dihuang Porridge 263 27.4.2.2 Dihuang Wine 263 27.5 Clinical Evidences 263 27.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 264 References 264 28 Rhodiola crenulata L. 7EA2666F5929 (Hongjingtian, Red-Spotted Stonecrops) 266 28.1 Botanical Identity 266 28.2 Chemical Constituents 267 28.2.1 Phenols and Their Corresponding Glycosides 267 28.2.2 Monoterpenoid Glycosides and Cyanophoric Glycosides 268 28.2.3 Flavonoids 268 28.3 Pharmacological Studies 268 28.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 270 28.4.1 TCM Applications 270 28.4.2 Dietary Usages 271 28.4.2.1 Hongjingtian Tea 271 28.4.2.2 Hongjingtian Capsule 272 28.4.2.3 Hongjingtian Wine 272 28.4.2.4 Hongjingtian Gruel 272 28.5 Quality Evaluation and Assurance 272 28.6 Clinical Evidences 273 28.7 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 273 References 274 29 Salvia miltiorrhiza Bonge 4E3953C2 (Danshen, Red Sage) 276 29.1 Botanical Identity 276 29.2 Chemical Constituents 277 29.2.1 Phenanthraquinones 277 29.2.2 Phenolic Acids 277 29.3 Pharmacological Studies 279 29.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 279 29.4.1 TCM Applications 279 29.4.2 Dietary Usages 280 29.4.2.1 Danshen Teas 280 29.4.2.2 Danshen Wine [13] 280 29.4.2.3 Danshen Used in Medicated Foods 281 29.5 Clinical Evidences 281 29.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 281 References 282 30 Zingiber officinale (Willd.) Rosc. 59DC (Jiang, Common Ginger) 283 30.1 Botanical Identity 283 30.2 Chemical Constituents 284 30.2.1 Volatiles 285 30.2.2 Non-volatile Pungent Principles 286 30.3 Pharmacological Studies 286 30.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 287 30.4.1 TCM Applications 287 30.4.2 Dietary Usage [2, 9] 288 30.4.2.1 Ginger Used as a Condiment in Food and Beverage Industries 288 30.4.2.2 Ginger Used as Household Remedy 289 30.4.2.3 Ginger Used as Culinary and Dietary Materials 289 30.5 Clinical Evidences 289 30.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 290 References 290 Part III Fruit or Seed Materials 292 31 Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel 76CA667A4EC1 (Yizhi Ren, Sharpleaf Galangal) 293 31.1 Botanical Identity 293 31.2 Chemical Constituents 294 31.2.1 Terpenoids 294 31.2.2 Diarylheptanoids 294 31.2.3 Flavonoids 295 31.3 Pharmacological Studies 296 31.4 TCM Application and Dietary Usage 296 31.4.1 TCM Applications 296 31.4.2 Dietary Usage 296 31.4.2.1 Yizhi Ren Gruel 297 31.4.2.2 Shexian Flapjack 297 31.4.2.3 Yizhi Beef Broth 297 31.4.2.4 Yizhi Ren Flavor 297 31.5 Clinical Evidences 298 31.6 Quality Evaluation and Assurance 298 31.7 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 298 References 298 32 Amomum villosum 78024EC1 (Sharen, Amomum Fruit) 300 32.1 Botanical Identity 300 32.2 Chemical Constituents 301 32.3 Pharmacological Studies 302 32.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 303 32.4.1 TCM Applications 303 32.4.2 Dietary Usages 304 32.4.2.1 Sharen Porridge 304 32.4.2.2 Sharen Dishes 304 32.4.2.3 Sharen Wine 305 32.5 Clinical Evidences 305 32.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 306 References 306 33 Arctium lappa L. 725B84A15B50 (Niubangzi, Great Burdock) 308 33.1 Botanical Identity 308 33.2 Chemical Constituents 309 33.3 Pharmacological Studies 309 33.4 TCM Applications 309 33.5 Clinical Evidences 310 33.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 311 References 311 34 Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch. 9752679C (Qingguo, Chinese Olive) 313 34.1 Botanical Identity 313 34.2 Chemical Constituents 314 34.2.1 Phenols [3--6] 314 34.2.2 Terpenes 316 34.2.3 Coumarins 316 34.2.4 Essential Oil 316 34.3 Pharmacological Studies 316 34.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 317 34.4.1 TCM Applications 317 34.4.2 Dietary Usages 317 34.5 Clinical Evidences 318 34.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 318 References 319 35 Cassia Obtusifolia L. 51B3660E5B50 (Juemingzi, Semen Cassiae) 320 35.1 Botanical Identity 320 35.2 Chemical Constituents 320 35.2.1 Anthraquinone 320 35.2.2 Naphthopyrone 322 35.2.3 Other Compounds 322 35.3 Pharmacological Studies 322 35.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 322 35.4.1 TCM Applications 322 35.4.2 Dietary Usages 323 35.5 Clinical Evidences 323 35.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 323 References 324 36 Chaenomeles speciosa 672874DC (Mugua, Flowering Quince) 325 36.1 Botanical Identity 325 36.2 Chemical Constituents and Quality Evaluation 326 36.3 Pharmacological Studies 327 36.3.1 Anticancer Activity 327 36.3.2 Hepatoprotective Activity 327 36.3.3 Antiinflammatory and Antibacterial Activity 327 36.3.4 Other Pharmacological Activity 328 36.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 328 36.4.1 TCM Applications 328 36.4.2 Dietary Usage 328 36.5 Clinical Evidence 329 36.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 329 References 329 37 Citrus medica L. var. sarcodactylis Swingle 4F5B624B (Foshou, Finger Citron) 331 37.1 Botanical Identity 331 37.2 Chemical Constituents 332 37.2.1 Volatile Oil 332 37.2.2 Flavonoids 332 37.2.3 Coumarins 333 37.2.4 Phenolic Acids 333 37.2.5 Others 333 37.3 Pharmacological Studies 333 37.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 334 37.4.1 TCM Applications 334 37.4.2 Dietary Usage 334 37.5 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 334 References 334 38 Citrus reticulata Blanco and Cultivars 6A5876AE (Jupi, Mandarin Orange Peel) 336 38.1 Botanical Identity 336 38.2 Chemical Constituents 337 38.2.1 Essential Oils 337 38.2.2 Flavonnoids 337 38.2.2.1 Polymethoxylated Flavonoids (PMFs) 337 38.2.2.2 Other Flavonoids 338 38.3 Pharmacological Studies 338 38.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 339 38.4.1 TCM Applications 339 38.4.2 Dietary Usages 339 38.4.2.1 Chenpi Tea 339 38.4.2.2 Chenpi Used in Medicated Foods 340 38.5 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 340 References 340 39 Coix lacryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen (Roman.) Stapf 858F82E14EC1 (Yiyiren, Jobstears) 341 39.1 Botanical Identity 341 39.2 Chemical Constituents 342 39.2.1 Nutritional Ingredients 342 39.2.2 Bioactive Ingredients [6, 7] 343 39.3 Pharmacological Studies 344 39.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 344 39.4.1 TCM Applications 344 39.4.2 Dietary Usages 345 39.4.2.1 Coix Seed Teas 345 39.4.2.2 Coix Seed Health Care Wine 345 39.4.2.3 Coix Seed Used in Medicated Foods 346 39.5 Clinical Evidences 346 39.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 347 References 348 40 Cornus officinalis Sieb. et Zucc. 5C7183318438 (Shanzhuyu, Medicinal Dogwood) 349 40.1 Botanical Identity 349 40.2 Chemical Constituents 350 40.2.1 Iridoid Glycosides 350 40.2.2 Organic Acids 351 40.2.3 Tannins 352 40.2.4 Polysaccharides 352 40.3 Pharmacological Studies [2, 11] 352 40.4 TCM-Applications and Dietary Usage 352 40.4.1 TCM Application 352 40.4.2 Dietary Usages 353 40.4.2.1 Shanzhuyu Wines 353 40.4.2.2 Shanzhuyu Teas 353 40.4.2.3 Shanzhuyu Gruel 354 40.5 Clinical Evidences 354 40.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data [20] 354 References 355 41 Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. 5C716942 (Shanzha, Hawthorn Fruit) 356 41.1 Botanical Identity 356 41.2 Chemical Constituents 357 41.3 Pharmacological Studies 358 41.3.1 Improve Digestion 358 41.3.2 Hypolipidemic and Preventive Effects on Atherosclerosis 358 41.3.3 Hepatoprotective Function 359 41.3.4 Antitumor Activity 359 41.3.5 Antioxidant Activity 359 41.3.6 Anti-aging Activity 359 41.3.7 Hair Growth Activity 359 41.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 360 41.5 Quality Evaluation and Assurance 360 41.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 360 References 361 42 Dimocarpus longan Lour. 9F99773C8089 (Longyanrou, Longan) 363 42.1 Botanical Identity 363 42.2 Chemical Constituents 364 42.2.1 Polysaccharides 364 42.2.2 Phenolics 364 42.3 Pharmacological Studies 365 42.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 366 42.4.1 TCM Applications 366 42.4.2 Dietary Usage 366 42.4.2.1 Longyanrou Teas 367 42.4.2.2 Longyanrou Wine 367 42.5 Clinical Evidences 367 42.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 368 References 369 43 Euryale ferox 82A15B9E (Qianshi, Gordon Euryale Seed) 370 43.1 Botanical Identity 370 43.2 Chemical Constituents 371 43.2.1 Nutritional Ingredients [2] 371 43.2.2 Functional Ingredients 373 43.3 Pharmacological Studies 373 43.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 373 43.5 Quality Evaluation and Assurance 374 43.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 374 References 375 44 Gardenia jasminoides Ellis 68005B50 (Zhizi, Capejasmine) 377 44.1 Botanical Identity [1] 377 44.2 Chemical Constituents 378 44.2.1 Iridoid Glycosides 378 44.2.2 Organic Acid Esters 378 44.2.3 Saffron Glycosides 379 44.2.4 Flavonoids 379 44.3 Pharmacological Studies 380 44.3.1 Antioxidative Effect of Gardenia jasminoides 380 44.3.2 Anti-inflammatory Effects of G. jasminoides 382 44.3.3 Neuroprotective Effects of Gardenia jasminoide 383 44.3.4 Antitumoric Activity of G. jasminoides 383 44.3.5 Antihyperlipidemic Effects of Gardenia jasminoides 383 44.3.6 Antifibrotic Effects of G. jasminoides 384 44.3.7 Antithrombotic Effect of Gardenia jasminoides 384 44.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 385 44.4.1 TCM Applications 385 44.4.2 Dietary Usage 385 44.4.2.1 Teas 385 44.4.2.2 Dye 385 44.4.2.3 Culinary Uses 386 44.5 Clinical Evidences 386 44.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 386 References 387 45 Ginkgo biloba L. 94F6674F (Yinxing, Baiguo, Ginkgo) 389 45.1 Botanical Identity 389 45.2 Chemical Constituents 390 45.2.1 Flavonoids 391 45.2.2 Alkyl Phenolic Acids and Alkyl Phenols 393 45.2.3 Terpenes 393 45.3 Pharmacological Studies 394 45.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 395 45.4.1 TCM Applications 395 45.4.2 Dietary Usages 396 45.5 Clinical Evidence 397 45.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 398 References 399 46 Hippophae rhamnoides L. 6C9968D8 (Shaji, Common Sea-buckthorn) 401 46.1 Botanical Identity 401 46.2 Chemical Constituents 402 46.2.1 Fatty Acids and Phytosterols 402 46.2.2 Flavonoids and Phenolics 403 46.2.3 Vitamins 404 46.3 Pharmacological Studies 405 46.3.1 Antioxidant Activities 405 46.3.2 Cardiovascular Protection 406 46.3.3 Skin and Mucosa Health 406 46.3.4 Liver Protection 407 46.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 407 46.4.1 TCM Applications 407 46.4.2 Dietary Use 408 46.4.3 Beverages and Foods 408 46.4.4 Beauty 409 46.5 Clinical Evidences 409 46.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 410 References 411 47 Hovenia dulcis Thunb. 67B369075B50 (Zhijuzi, Oriental Raisin Tree Seed) 414 47.1 Botanical Identity 414 47.2 Chemical Constituents 415 47.3 Pharmacological Studies 416 47.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 417 47.4.1 TCM Applications 417 47.4.2 Dietary Usage 418 47.4.2.1 Zhijuzi and Swine Lung Soup 418 47.4.2.2 Zhijuzi Wine 418 47.4.2.3 Zhijuzi Cooked with Chicken Liver 418 47.5 Clinical Evidence 418 47.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 419 References 419 48 Lycium barbarum L. 67B8675E5B50 (Gouqizi, Wolfberry) 421 48.1 Botanical Identity 421 48.2 Chemical Constituents 422 48.2.1 Polysaccharides 422 48.2.2 Carotenoids 423 48.3 Pharmacological Studies 423 48.4 TCM-Applications and Dietary Usage 423 48.4.1 TCM Application [10] 423 48.4.2 Dietary Usages 424 48.4.2.1 Soups 424 48.4.2.2 Teas 424 48.4.2.3 Wines or Drinks 424 48.5 Clinical Evidences 425 48.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 425 References 425 49 Siraitia grosvenorii Swingle 7F576C49679C (Luo Han Guo) 427 49.1 Botanical Identity 427 49.2 Chemical Constituents 428 49.2.1 Triterpene Glycosides 428 49.2.2 Flavonoids 429 49.2.3 Other Ingredients 429 49.3 Pharmacological Studies 430 49.4 TCM Application and Dietary Usage 430 49.4.1 TCM Applications 430 49.4.2 Dietary Usages 431 49.4.2.1 Luohanguo Teas 431 49.4.2.2 Luohanguo Candy Drink 432 49.4.2.3 Luohanguo Gruel 432 49.4.2.4 Luohanguo Soup 432 49.5 Clinical Evidences 432 49.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issue 433 References 433 50 Myristica fragrans Houtt. 80898C46853B (Roudoukou, Nutmeg) 435 50.1 Botanical Identity 435 50.2 Chemical Constituents 436 50.2.1 Essential Oil 436 50.2.2 Neolignan 436 50.3 Pharmacological Studies 438 50.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 438 50.4.1 TCM Applications 438 50.4.2 Dietary Usages 438 50.4.2.1 Spice 439 50.4.2.2 Essential Oil 439 50.4.2.3 Roudoukou Tea 439 50.5 Clinical Evidences 439 50.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 439 50.6.1 Cardiovascular Reaction 440 50.6.2 Neurological Reaction [17, 18] 440 50.6.3 Effects on Liver 440 50.6.4 Toxicity Data 440 References 441 51 Phyllanthus emblica L. 4F5975185B50 (Yuganzi, Indian Gooseberry) 442 51.1 Botanical Identity 442 51.2 Chemical Constituents 443 51.2.1 Tannins and Related Polyphenols 443 51.2.2 Phenolic Acids 444 51.2.3 Nutritious Components 444 51.3 Pharmacological Studies 445 51.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 446 51.4.1 TCM Applications 446 51.4.2 Dietary Usages 447 51.4.2.1 Fresh Fruits 447 51.4.2.2 Fruit Juice 447 51.4.2.3 Yuganzi Succades 447 51.4.2.4 Yuganzi Wine 447 51.5 Clinical Evidences 448 51.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 448 References 449 52 Piper nigrum L. 9ED180E16912 (Heihujiao, Black Pepper) 451 52.1 Botanical Identity 451 52.2 Chemical Constituents 452 52.2.1 Amide Alkaloids 452 52.2.2 Essential Oils 452 52.2.3 Other Components 454 52.3 Pharmacological Studies 455 52.3.1 Effects of P. nigrum on Digestion 455 52.3.2 Antioxidant Activity of P. nigrum 455 52.3.3 Antidiarrhoeal Property of P. nigrum 455 52.3.4 Antimutagenic and Antitumor Activity of P. nigrum 456 52.3.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity of P. nigrum 456 52.3.6 Antihypertensive Effect of P. nigrum 456 52.3.7 Antibacterial Effects of P. nigrum 457 52.3.8 Other Activities 457 52.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 457 52.4.1 TCM Application 457 52.4.2 Dietary Usage 458 52.5 Clinical Evidences 458 52.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Data 459 References 460 53 Prunella vulgaris L. 590F67AF8349 (Xiakucao, Common Selfheal) 462 53.1 Botanical Identity 462 53.2 Chemical Constituents 463 53.2.1 Triterpenoids and Their Saponins 463 53.2.2 Flavonoids 463 53.3 Pharmacological Studies 465 53.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 465 53.4.1 TCM Application 465 53.4.2 Dietary Usages 465 53.4.2.1 Xiakucao Teas 465 53.4.2.2 Xiakucao Wine 466 53.4.2.3 Xiakucao Foods 466 53.5 Clinical Evidences 466 53.6 Safety Evaluations 467 References 467 54 Prunus armeniaca L. 82E6674F4EC1 (Kuxingren, Apricot) 469 54.1 Botanical Identity 469 54.2 Chemical Constituents 469 54.3 Pharmacological Studies 470 54.4 TCM Applications and Dietary Usage 471 54.4.1 TCM Applications 471 54.4.2 Dietary Usages 472 54.4.2.1 Xingsu Cake 472 54.4.2.2 Honey and Almond Pellet 472 54.4.2.3 Almond Sesame Powder 472 54.5 Clinical Evidence 472 54.6 Safety Evaluation and Toxicity Issues 473 References 473 55 Prunus mume (Sieb.) Sieb. et Zucc. 4E4C6885 (Wumei, Japanese Apricot) 475 55.1 Botanical Identity 475 55.2 Chemical Constituents 476 55.2.1 Organic Acids 476 55.2.2 Terpenoid Compounds 476 55.2.3 Flavonoids 478 55.2.4 Volatile Components 478 55.3 Pharmacological Studies 479 55.3.1 Antibacterial Effects of Prunus mume 479 55.3.2 Antitumor Activity of Prunus mume 480 55.3.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Prunus mume