تشخیص و درمان آسیب مغزی تروماتیک

9780323995757_WEB01 Front Cover Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury: The Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain Injury Copyright Dedication Contents Contributors Preface Section A Setting the scene and introductory chapters Chapter 1 Traumatic brain injury and in-hospital mortality- CT perfusion and beyond Introduction Neuroimaging for TBI Plain head computed tomography (CT) CT angiography (CTA) CT perfusion Magnetic resonance perfusion (MR perfusion) Diffusion tensor imaging CT perfusion and in-hospital mortality Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of TBI Summary points References Chapter 2 Predictors of outcome in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury Introduction Predictors and outcome measures Acute predictors Age GCS Abnormal pupillary response Hypoxia and hypotension CT findings Sub-acute predictors ICU neuromonitoring Biomarkers Pediatric TBI Prognostic models Epidemiological considerations: the importance of outcome prediction considering between-country differences Approaches to predictive models in TBI: Discordance between clinical research and clinical management of TBI Recommendation for developing a predictive model in TBI Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of potential strategies in TBI outcome research Summary points References Chapter 3 Thirty years post-injury: Impact of traumatic brain injury on later Alzheimer’s disease Introduction Understanding traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease Similarities in the long-term prognosis of mild repetitive and severe isolated traumatic brain injury Post-traumatic brain injury Alzheimer’s disease Amyloid-β pathology in traumatic brain injury Tubulin-associated unit pathology in traumatic brain injury Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of post-traumatic brain injury delayed-onset cognitive and psychiatric disorders Summary points Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Drug interventions and stem cells in traumatic brain injury: Translation from experimental model to bedside Introduction The pathophysiology of TBI Possible treatments for TBI: Drug interventions Introduction to stem cells and their therapeutic potential Pre-clinical studies utilizing stem cells for the treatment of TBI Clinical studies utilizing stem cells Limitations of stem cells use Application to other fields of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of stem cells Summary points References Chapter 5 Management of traumatic brain injury from the aspect of emergency department and case studies Introduction Emergency department considerations Management of mild brain injury (GCS score 13–15) Management of moderate TBI Management of sTBI Airway Rapid sequence intubation Breathing Circulation Disability Medical treatment of brain injury Intravenous fluids Correction of anticoagulation Tranexamic acid Transfusion in TBI Management of elevated ICP Body positioning Hyperosmolar agents Hyperventilation Temperature management Sedation and analgesia Seizure management Corticosteroids Calcium channel blockers Conclusions and future directions Case 1 Case 2 Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of advanced trauma life support Summary points References Chapter 6 Neuropsychiatric disorders after severe traumatic brain injury: An overview Introduction The role of brain injury severity and structural pathophysiologic changes The role of post-injury variables The role of pre-morbid variables The role of environmental variables Methodological issues related to the neuropsychiatric assessment Classification of the main neuropsychiatric disorders Agitation Aggression Irritability Disinhibition Substance abuse disorders Depression and apathy Anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Psychosis, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive symptoms Sleep disturbances A brief consideration of possible interventions Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of neuropsychiatric disorders after severe traumatic brain injury: An overview Summary points References Section B Clinical features of traumatic brain injury Chapter 7 Cerebral hemorrhages in traumatic brain injury Introduction The BBB and NVC after TBI NVC, TBI, and aging Vascular pathophysiology after TBI TBI hemorrhage identification and localization Differential etiology of TBI-related hemorrhages Epi)genetic risk for hemorrhage after experimental TBI Novel approaches for TBI CMB neuroimaging CMBs TBI hemorrhages and AD Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of cerebral hemorrhages after traumatic brain injury Summary points Acknowledgments References Chapter 8 Linking fibrinogen, coagulopathy prophylaxis, and traumatic brain injury Introduction Fibrinogen TBI-induced coagulation/fibrinolysis cascade Time course of fibrinogen concentration in the acute phase of TBI Fibrinogen concentration and outcome in TBI Therapeutic target level of fibrinogen Measurements of fibrinogen Correlation between fibrinogen and fibrinolytic parameters Treatment by replenishment of fibrinogen Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts about fibrinogen Summary points References Chapter 9 Linking traumatic brain injury and nosocomial infections Introduction Post-traumatic immunosuppression Post-traumatic critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency Post-traumatic dysbiosis Glucocorticoids: A therapeutic avenue in the prevention of nosocomial infections after trauma Application to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of ventilatory-associated pneumonia Summary points References Chapter 10 Long-term sequelae of mild-repetitive and severe traumatic brain injury: Clinical manifestations, neuropatholog ... Introduction Clinical symptoms and neuropathology of chronic states of TBI Growing need for neuroimaging biomarkers of chronic pathologies of TBI PET imaging of TBI with first-generation tau PET tracers Challenges for quantification of tau load in TBI by tau PET imaging Development of second-generation tau PET tracer PET imaging of TBI with second-generation tau PET tracer Future directions of research Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Key facts of neurodegenerative diseases following TBI Key facts of tau PET imaging Mini-dictionary of terms Summary points Acknowledgments References Chapter 11 Evaluating the integrity of white matter after traumatic brain injury and the utility of diffusion tensor imaging Introduction The vulnerable white matter tracts in TBI Clinical and neurophysiological evaluation of injury to white matter Key facts of clinical and neurophysiological assessment after TBI DTI: A primer DTI and the white matter integrity Key facts of DTI DTI sequences and analysis tools: Strengths and weaknesses Moderate-to-severe TBI: DTI Study DTI in special populations: Mild TBI and blast-induced TBI Diffusion tensor tractography (DTT) in patients with TBI Limitation of DTI as a clinical tool Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Summary points References Chapter 12 Cerebral activation of attention and working memory in traumatic brain injury Introduction: Executive dysfunction in traumatic brain injury The neural basis of attention and working memory The dual-network model of attention Inhibitory control Measuring inhibition Working memory Developmental changes in brain networks Maturation of attention networks Maturation of inhibition Maturation of working memory Disruptions following TBI Brain network disruption following TBI Deficits in attention and inhibition following TBI Inhibition and the default mode network Deficits in working memory following TBI Structural and functional changes following TBI Cortical thickness Cortical-striatal loop Modulating cortical activations in TBI using non-invasive brain stimulation Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of working memory and attention Summary points References Chapter 13 Traumatic brain injury: Linking intracranial pressure, arterial pressure, and the pressure reactivity index Introduction Cerebral autoregulation Development of the pressure reactivity index (PRx) Association of PRx with outcomes Global outcomes following TBI PRx thresholds PRx and imaging findings PRx and cerebral oxygen metabolism PRx in targeted therapy Limitation of PRx Future of cerebrovascular reactivity Application to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of cerebrovascular reactivity in TBI Summary points Acknowledgments References Chapter 14 Cerebral perfusion pressure thresholds in traumatic brain injury Introduction Defining cerebral perfusion pressure Cerebral autoregulation CBF variability in TBI CPP targets in TBI Global CPP targeted therapy Personalized CPP targets ARDS in TBI Future directions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of CPP thresholds in TBI Summary points Acknowledgments References Chapter 15 Brain swelling in traumatic brain injury Introduction Historical background Overview on the blood–brain barrier The pathogenesis of brain edema Cytotoxic edema Vasogenic edema Primary vasogenic edema Delayed vasogenic edema Clinical translation Clinical classification Focal/perifocal traumatic brain swelling Diffuse/global traumatic brain swelling Mild/moderate TBI (GCS > 8) Severe TBI (GCS ≤ 8) Conclusion(s) Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of cerebral edema Summary points Acknowledgments Conflict of interest References Chapter 16 Post-coma syndrome in the context of severe acquired brain injury: Traumatic brain injury and beyond Definition issues Severe acquired brain injury Disorders of consciousness Coma Vegetative State/Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome Minimally Conscious State (MCS) Functional Locked-in Syndrome Covert cognition Prognostic indicators Clinical predictive factors Evaluation scales Instrumental diagnostic and prognostic indicators Neurophysiology Neuroimaging Sequelae of severe Acquired BRAIN Injury (sABI) Post-traumatic amnesia Neuropsychological disorders Neuromotor disorders Intervention—A multidisciplinary approach Pharmacotherapeutic approach Applications to other areas of neuroscience Neurophysiology and neuroimaging Neuropsychology Neurorehabilitation Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of post-coma syndrome Summary points References Section C Diagnosis and evaluation Chapter 17 Features of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 and its applications for traumatic ... Introduction ICF framework WHODAS 2.0 Reliability Validity Current research on the use of the WHODAS 2.0 in TBI care Comparison of disability in spinal cord injury and TBI, as assessed using the WHODAS 2.0 Evaluation of post-concussion syndrome in patients with mild TBI Association between history of lifetime TBI and disabling functional restrictions Assessment of chronic TBI with the WHODAS 2.0 Psychometric properties of the WHODAS 2.0 Prediction of institutionalization among patients with TBI Conclusion Applications to other neuroscience fields Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 Summary points References Chapter 18 Biomarkers in pediatric traumatic injury: The brain and beyond Introduction Biomarkers in traumatic brain injury Biomarkers in pediatric traumatic brain injury Biomarkers and neuroimaging Biomarkers as predictors of severity and prognosis of TBI Biomarkers predicting late sequalae of TBI in children Recognizing abusive trauma Applications to other areas of neurosciences Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of traumatic brain injury Key facts of biomarkers Summary points References Chapter 19 Brain injury biomarkers: Proteins and autoantibodies interplay Introduction The immunological cascade of events post-TBI Innate immune response in TBI: A tug of war between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators Astrocyte-derived immunomodulatory mechanisms post-TBI Adaptive immune response in TBI: The role of T- and B-lymphocytes The glymphatic system disruption: A source of biomarkers in TBI Autoantibodies as biomarkers in TBI: An overview A list of identified autoantibodies post-TBI Myelin basic protein (MBP) S100B protein Acetylcholine receptor (AChR) Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) Peroxiredoxin 6 Glutamate receptor Evaluation of the prospective power of autoantibodies as prognostic markers in TBI B-lymphocytes as a therapeutic target post-TBI Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience: The efficacy of GFAP in assessing the diagnostic power of different neuroimag ... Mini-dictionary of terms Key-facts of TBI biomarkers Key facts of the glymphatic system (GS) Summary points References Chapter 20 Chitinase-3-like protein 1: Features and applications as a biomarker in traumatic brain injury Introduction Preclinical studies of YKL-40 in TBI Pericontusional astrocytic YKL-40 transcription is driven by cytokines released from macrophages infiltrating the necrotic ... CHI3L1: Friend or foe following TBI? CHI3L1 is not involved in the ultrastructural characteristics of TBI lesions YKL-40 may play a role in immune cell trafficking into the injured brain CHI3L1 is a potential pathological fingerprint of blast-induced neurotrauma Clinical studies of YKL-40 in TBI Release patterns of CSF YKL-40 are related to the trauma-induced pro-inflammatory response that negatively impacts patient ... CSF YKL-40 levels as a reflection of post-concussion syndrome severity YKL-40 concentration as an objective and complementary assessment of impairment of consciousness levels and radiologic lesi ... Assessment of neurologic status Identification of CT-positive findings Classification of extra-axial mass lesions Discrimination of intra-axial mass lesions The relationship between YKL-40 and other neurotrauma biomarkers Future directions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of CHI3L1: Features and applications as a biomarker in TBI Summary points References Chapter 21 microRNA biomarkers in traumatic brain injury: A new narrative Introduction Characteristics of the ideal biomarker Unique properties of micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) Measurement of miRNAs The response of miRNAs to TBI Use of miRNAs for mTBI diagnosis Predicting TBI outcomes with miRNAs Clinical management of mTBI Top miRNA candidates Future directions for miRNA research in TBI Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) Summary points Conflicts of interest References Chapter 22 Pediatric minor head injury imaging Introduction Epidemiology of pediatric traumatic brain injury (pTBI) Types of injury in the pediatric population Minor pTBI features Imaging Imaging techniques available in pTBI Conventional imaging techniques X-rays Computed tomography (CT scan) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan) Advanced imaging techniques Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of concussions Summary points References Chapter 23 Transcranial Doppler ultrasound in acute traumatic brain injury Introduction Physical basis for transcranial Doppler ultrasound Technical features and ultrasound neurovascular anatomy Cerebrovascular disorders in severe traumatic brain injury Hypoperfusion Vasospasm Hyperemia TCD peculiarities in certain clinical forms of traumatic brain injury TCD-patterns at cerebral contusions TCD-patterns at traumatic ICH TCD-patterns after surgical removal of ICH Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of transcranial Doppler ultrasound Summary points References Chapter 24 Computed tomography assessment of brain swelling Introduction Parameters to evaluate brain swelling in computed tomography Marshall scale Rotterdam scale Criteria to guide practical management Special conditions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Key facts of brain swelling and computed tomography Mini-dictionary of terms Summary points References Chapter 25 Machine learning and prediction of traumatic brain injury mortality Introduction TBI mortality Predicting TBI mortality Predictors of outcome Admission characteristics Clinical course Outcomes Prognostic models Building a prognostic model Important prognostic models Machine learning Conclusions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of quality of life of patients after TBI Key facts of Glasgow coma scale score Key facts of pupillary abnormalities Key facts of abbreviated injury score (AIS) Key facts of CT Marshall classification Summary points References Chapter 26 Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: A focus on screening, diagnosis, and treatment Introduction Screening of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries Predictive factors of post-TBI pituitary dysfunction Screening algorithms of pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injuries Diagnosis of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries Central adrenal insufficiency Growth hormone deficiency Central hypogonadism Central hypothyroidism Central diabetes insipidus Treatment of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries Central adrenal insufficiency Growth hormone deficiency Central hypogonadism Central hypothyroidism Central diabetes insipidus Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of screening strategies, diagnostic and treatment modalities of pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injur ... Summary points References Section D Treatments: Experimental and clinical Chapter 27 European aspects of guidelines used in traumatic brain injury Introduction Current data update and analysis Other areas of neuroscience Discussion Mini dictionary terms Key facts of adherence of guidelines for treatment of severe head injury Summary points References Further reading Chapter 28 Anesthesia in traumatic brain injury Introduction Preoperative management Pathophysiology Airway management Systemic complications of brain injury Anesthetic management Neuropharmacology of commonly used anesthetic agents Autoregulation and anesthetic agents Hemodynamic management Management of intraoperative intracranial hypertension ( Fig. 2) Intraoperative monitoring Postoperative sequelae Anesthetic agents and neuronal injury Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of anesthetics for injured brain Summary points References Chapter 29 Treatment of raised intracranial pressure in traumatic head injury Introduction Analysis of the treatment during the so called “brain decade” Recommendations Intracranial pressure monitoring Current data update and analysis Role of the cranial decompression Corticosteroids Progesterone Erythropoietin Amantadine Tranexamic acid Citicoline Anti-inflammatory therapies Role of the ultrasound. Transcranial Doppler TCD Hypothermia Discussion Applications in other areas of neuroscience Mini dictionary terms Key facts Summary points References Further reading Chapter 30 Seizures after traumatic brain injury and their treatment Introduction Pathophysiology of TBI-induced epileptogenesis Epidemiological and clinical presentation Translational considerations of PTE mechanisms Pre-clinical studies in animal models of PTE Early intervention after TBI to prevent PTS and PTE Conclusions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Kay facts of post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) Summary points References Chapter 31 Neurosurgical treatment of critical brain damage: The early post-surgical period and algorithms Introduction Critical damage: Physiological features and surgical treatment nuances Damage control”: A path between the Scylla and the Charybdis Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of the surgical treatment of polytraumazed patient with TBI Summary points References Chapter 32 Hypertonic saline usage in traumatic brain injury: A focus on pediatrics Introduction Overview of traumatic brain injury and hyperosmolar therapy Cerebral edema Traumatic brain injury-associated cerebral edema Use of hyperosmolar therapy in TBI History and evolution of the use of HTS for TBI Pathophysiology/mechanism of HTS use for TBI Current use of HTS in the pediatric clinical setting Indications Contraindications Dosing Monitoring Potential adverse effects Literature review Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of TBI in children Summary points References Chapter 33 Treatment of vascular lesions in traumatic brain injury Arterial lesions: Dissections and pseudoaneurysms Endovascular treatment of traumatic aneurysms Therapeutic arterial occlusion Mechanical thrombectomy Stenting Carotid-cavernous fistula Treatment Conservative Surgical management Radiosurgery Endovascular management Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts: Treatment of vascular lesions in traumatic head injury Summary points References Further reading Chapter 34 Airway pressure release ventilation (APRV) in traumatic brain injury Introduction Airway pressure release ventilation Positive end expiratory pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure APRV in traumatic brain injury Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of APRV in traumatic brain injury Summary points References Chapter 35 Linking death, the paranasal sinuses, and traumatic head trauma Key points Introduction The significance of the paranasal sinuses Anatomy of paranasal sinuses Frontal sinus Management: A change in surgical paradigm Sphenoid sinus Maxillary sinus Cribiform plate fractures History and physical examination Imaging of paranasal sinus trauma Pathogenesis Cerebral perfusion pressure Oxidative stress Blood–brain barrier disruption The debate about the protective effect of the paranasal sinuses Music and paranasal sinus Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of paranasal sinuses Key facts of crumple zone Summary points References Chapter 36 Cannabidiol in traumatic brain injury Introduction Cannabidiol targets Phytocannabinoids Neuroprotective role of cannabidiol Cannabidiol in TBI-related anxiety and depression Cannabidiol in TBI and post-traumatic stress disorder-related aggression Cannabidiol in TBI-related gut microbiota dysfunctions Cannabidiol and clinical trials Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of cannabidiol Summary points References Chapter 37 Valproic acid: A new narrative on its features and effects in traumatic brain injury Background Epigenetic changes following TBI Valproic acid: A histone deacetylase inhibitor Effects of valproic acid in pre-clinical models of traumatic brain injury Underlying mechanisms of VPA-neuroprotection Dosing, safety, and future work Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of traumatic brain injury and valproic acid Summary points References Chapter 38 Dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury Introduction Omega-3 fatty acids Creatine Vitamins Zinc Magnesium Other dietary supplements for TBI Promising dietary supplements for TBI Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury: Omega-3 fatty acids Key facts of dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury: Sports induced TBI Summary points References Section E Rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury Chapter 39 Virtual reality and cognitive rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury Introduction CR strategies Virtual reality VR advantages and application in CR VR in TBI CR: Current knowledge Conclusions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of virtual reality Key fact for cognitive rehabilitation Summary points References Chapter 40 How the elderly and young compare in response to traumatic brain injury rehabilitation Introduction Characteristics of young and elderly patients with TBI Assessment of young and elderly patients with TBI International classification of functioning, disability, and health model for TBI Initial assessment of young and elderly patients with TBI Assessment of functional impairments in young and elderly patients with TBI Assessment of physical function in young and elderly patients with TBI Assessment of cognitive and language functions in young and elderly patients with TBI Assessment of ADL in young and elderly patients with TBI Comparison of responses to rehabilitation in the elderly and young patients with TBI Application to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts on DTI Key facts on fMRI Summary points References Chapter 41 Rehabilitation of social cognition after traumatic brain injury Introduction First historical programs: Rehabilitation of social cognition in other pathologies Rehabilitation of social cognition in traumatic patients with brain injury Rehabilitation programs targeting one domain of social cognition Treatment of emotion perception Bornhofen and McDonald (2008a, 2008b): Facial emotion recognition Radice-Neumann et al. (2009) and Neumann et al. (2015): Face intervention program McDonald et al. (2013): Emotional prosody recognition Guercio et al. (2004): Facial emotion recognition Williamson and Isaki (2015): Modified facial affect recognition Treatment of theory of mind (ToM) Lundgren, Brownell, Cayer-Meade, and Spitzer (2007): Decoding first and second order beliefs and intentional deception Rehabilitation programs of interpersonal and communication skills of theory of mind Helffenstein and Wechsler (1982): Interpersonal process recall remediation (IPR) Dahlberg et al. (2007): Social communication skills treatment in group design Finch et al. (2017): Remediation of social communication program with group or individual design Winegardner et al. (2016): Perspective group training Gabbatore et al. (2015): Cognitive pragmatic treatment Multi-component rehabilitation programs of social cognition Westerhof-Evers et al. (2017): T-SCEmo program McDonald et al. (2008): Social skills treatment-perception of emotions, emotional regulation and social behavior Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of rehabilitation in social cognition References Chapter 42 Psycho-educational intervention on caregivers within the rehabilitation process: From the post-acute to the hom ... Introduction Caregivers as primary resources within the neuro-rehabilitation process Caregiver as victims themselves of the brain injury occurred to their loved one Caregivers’ burden Caregivers’ concerns and needs across the different stages post-TBI Caregivers’ coping strategies Conclusion Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of psycho-educational intervention Summary points References Chapter 43 Recommended resources and sites for the neuroscience of traumatic brain injury Introduction Resources Other resources Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of traumatic brain injury Summary points Acknowledgments References Index Back Cover 9780323995757_WEB02 Front Cover Cellular, Molecular, Physiological, and Behavioral Aspects of Traumatic Brain Injury: The Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain ... Copyright Dedication Contents Contributors Preface Section A: Setting the scene: The spectrum of traumatic brain injuries Chapter 1 Fall-related traumatic brain injuries in older adults: The role of the neck Introduction Role of neck muscles in TBI prevention Effects of aging on neck muscles Potential rehabilitation strategies Conclusions Applications to other areas of neuroscience Key facts of fall-related traumatic brain injuries Mini-dictionary of terms Summary points References Chapter 2 The implications of sex and gender in traumatic brain injury Introduction Conceptual considerations Sex and gender Methodological consideration Sex/gender difference in the nervous system Basic science and preclinical research Neuroprotection: Sex hormones Neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration Emotional regulation and cognitive outcomes Physical performance Clinical and population-based research Research involvement Sleep and wakefulness pathology Stress and coping Defense and aggression Social cognition Population-based research Exposure to TBI of specific mechanisms Mechanism of injury and comorbidity Violence and social inequity Functional outcomes Implications for translational research and medicine Application to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of sex/gender influences in traumatic brain injury Summary points References Chapter 3 Sport-related concussion: The role of repetitive head impact exposure Sport-related concussion Monitoring head impact exposure in contact sports Concussion and head impact exposure in soccer Concussion and head impact exposure in ice hockey Concussion and head impact exposure in American football Summary Applications to other areas of neuroscience Mini-dictionary of terms Key facts of sport-related concussion: The role of repetitive head impact exposure Summary points References Further reading Chapter 4 Traumatic brain injury and molecular biology: A new narrative Introduction Excitatory mechanisms post TBI Glutamate excitotoxicity Calcium homeostasis Na + -K + -2Cl-(NKCC) co-transporter Neuroinflammation The role of microglia The consequences of increased inflammatory mediators Mitochondrial injury post TBI Calcium mediated production of reactive oxygen species Mitochondr