Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete (Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering)

Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete, Second Edition, presents the latest developments on topics covered in the first edition. In addition, it includes new chapters on supplementary cementitious materials, mass concrete, the sustainably of concrete, service life prediction, limestone cements, the corrosion of steel in concrete, alkali-aggregate reactions, and concrete as a multiscale material. The book's chapters introduce the reader to some of the most important issues facing today's concrete industry. With its distinguished editor and international team of contributors, users will find this to be a must-have reference for civil and structural engineers. Summarizes a wealth of recent research on structural concrete, including material microstructure, concrete types, and variation and construction techniques Emphasizes concrete mixture design and applications in civil and structural engineering Reviews modern concrete materials and novel construction systems, such as the precast industry and structures requiring high-performance concrete Cover 1 Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete 3 Copyright 4 List of contributors 5 Introduction 7 Reference 8 1 Sustainability of concrete 9 1.1 Introduction 9 1.1.1 Steps to sustainability 11 1.1.2 Replacing cement with supplementary cementing materials 14 1.1.3 Improving concrete durability 16 1.1.4 Use high-strength concrete 17 1.1.5 Producing more efficient concrete mixes 18 1.1.6 Other paths to sustainability 18 1.1.7 Water 21 1.1.8 Education 21 References 22 Further reading 23 2 Recycled materials in concrete 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 Supplementary cementing materials 27 2.2.1 Fly ash 27 2.2.2 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 31 2.3 Recycled aggregates 34 2.4 Electric arc furnace slag 38 2.5 Recycled waste glass 42 2.6 Recycled tires 44 2.7 Recycled plastics 46 2.8 Other recycled materials 48 2.9 Future trends 51 References 53 3 Supplementary cementing materials 60 3.1 Introduction to supplementary cementing materials 60 3.1.1 Fly ash 61 3.1.2 Slag cement 64 3.1.3 Silica fume 65 3.1.4 Metakaolin 66 3.2 Chemical reactivity and hydration 66 3.2.1 Fly ash 67 3.2.2 Slag cement 67 3.2.3 Silica fume 68 3.2.4 Metakaolin 68 3.3 Fresh properties 68 3.3.1 Fly ash 69 3.3.2 Slag cement 70 3.3.3 Silica fume 70 3.3.4 Metakaolin 71 3.4 Mechanical properties 71 3.4.1 Fly ash 73 3.4.2 Slag cement 73 3.4.3 Silica fume 74 3.4.4 Metakaolin 74 3.5 Transport properties 74 3.6 Durability 76 3.6.1 Corrosion 76 3.6.1.1 Chloride ingress 76 3.6.1.2 Carbonation 77 3.6.2 Freeze–thaw and de-icer salt scaling 78 3.6.3 Alkali–silica reaction 80 3.6.4 Sulfate attack 82 3.7 Sustainability 83 3.8 Current needs 84 3.8.1 Availability of supplementary cementing materials 84 3.8.2 Concrete performance subjected to coupled degradation mechanisms 85 3.8.3 Environmental impact assessment of concrete containing supplementary cementing materials 85 Acknowledgments 85 References 85 4 Alkali–aggregate reaction 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Types of alkali–aggregate reaction 92 4.2.1 Alkali–silica reaction 93 4.2.2 Alkali–carbonate rock reaction 95 4.3 Mechanism of alkali–silica reaction 97 4.4 Necessary requirements for alkali–silica reaction 98 4.4.1 Alkalis 98 4.4.2 Reactive silica 99 4.4.3 Environment and moisture 100 4.5 Assessing aggregates for alkali–aggregate reaction-potential 102 4.5.1 Initial screening tests 107 4.5.2 Indicator tests 107 4.5.3 Performance tests 108 4.5.4 RILEM Technical Committee contributions 108 4.5.5 Drawing conclusions from tests for alkali–aggregate reaction-susceptibility 110 4.6 Practical measures to avoid or minimize alkali–silica reaction 110 4.6.1 Reducing the effect of alkalis, including use of supplementary cementitious materials 111 4.6.2 Avoiding the use of alkali-reactive aggregates 114 4.6.3 Modifying the environment to reduce the moisture content of the concrete 114 References 114 5 Corrosion of steel in concrete 118 5.1 Introduction 118 5.2 Carbonation initiation of reinforcement corrosion 119 5.3 Chloride initiation of reinforcement corrosion 120 5.3.1 Conclusion 121 5.4 Carbonation models 121 5.5 Chloride ingress models 122 5.6 Chloride threshold level 124 5.6.1 Conclusion 126 5.7 Durability 126 5.8 Service life 126 5.9 Application of service-life concepts in practice 128 5.9.1 Conclusion 129 5.10 Treatment of exposure conditions in standards 129 5.10.1 Conclusion 132 References 132 6 Hot weather concreting 133 6.1 Introduction 133 6.2 Material selection and mix design evaluation 133 6.2.1 Selection of cement 134 6.2.2 Use of mineral additives 135 6.2.3 Use of chemical admixtures 136 6.2.4 Mix design verification process 137 6.3 Cooling of concrete 138 6.3.1 Time and temperature of placement 138 6.3.2 Chilled water replacement for mixing water 139 6.3.3 Ice water replacement of mixing water 139 6.3.4 Cooling of coarse aggregates 140 6.3.5 Liquid nitrogen for cooling concrete 142 6.3.6 Heat pumps for cooling concrete 143 6.4 Effects on plastic properties 143 6.5 Effects on hardened properties 146 6.5.1 Mechanical performance 147 6.5.2 Durability performance 148 6.6 Future trends 148 6.6.1 Initiation of cracking 148 6.6.2 Concrete modeling 149 6.6.3 Nondestructive evaluation techniques 149 6.6.4 Materials’ specialty engineers 149 6.7 Sources of further information and advice 150 6.7.1 American Concrete Institute 150 6.7.2 Japan Concrete Institute 150 6.7.3 RILEM 150 References 151 7 High-strength concrete 153 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Applications 154 7.2.1 General 154 7.2.2 High-rise buildings 155 7.2.3 Bridges 155 7.2.4 Offshore structures 156 7.2.5 Special applications 161 7.3 Future trends 163 7.3.1 General 163 7.3.2 Probability-based durability design 165 References 166 Further reading 168 International Conferences 168 State-of-the-Art Reports 169 Books 169 8 The composition and design of high-strength concrete and ultrahigh-strength concrete 171 8.1 Introduction 171 8.2 Strength and porosity 172 8.2.1 Strength and water/cement ratio (Féret’s and Abrams’ laws) 173 8.2.2 Distance between cement grains and water/cement ratio 173 8.3 Concrete porosity 175 8.3.1 Porosity of physical origin: air bubbles 175 8.3.1.1 Entrapped air bubbles 175 8.3.1.2 Entrained air bubbles 176 8.3.1.3 Polycarboxylate ether entrained air bubbles 176 8.3.2 Porosity of chemical origin 176 8.3.2.1 Chemical contraction 176 8.3.2.2 Autogenous shrinkage 177 8.4 Porosity of the transition zone 179 8.5 High-strength concrete proportioning 180 8.5.1 Cement superplasticizer compatibility 180 8.5.2 Mix design 180 8.5.2.1 Absolute volume method 180 Trial batches 183 8.5.2.2 Simplified method 183 8.5.3 Case histories 185 8.5.3.1 Hibernia gravity base structure 185 8.5.3.2 The Confederation Bridge 185 8.6 Ultrahigh-strength concrete proportioning 186 8.6.1 Mix design of the cyclopedestrian bridge of Sherbrooke 187 8.6.2 Construction sequence 188 8.6.3 Long-term behavior of the structure and the ultrahigh-performance concrete 189 8.7 Increasing the particle packing of the aggregate skeleton 189 8.8 Conclusion 190 References 190 Further reading 192 9 High-density and radiation shielding concrete 193 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Gamma ray and neutron attenuation 194 9.3 Composition of radiation shielding concrete 195 9.3.1 High-density concrete 195 9.3.2 Neutron shielding concrete 198 9.4 Types of radiation effects on concrete 201 9.4.1 Drying of cement matrix and the effects of elevated temperature 203 9.4.2 Radiolysis effects 203 9.4.3 Interaction between creep and irradiation 205 9.4.4 Radiation-induced volumetric expansion of aggregate 205 9.4.5 Role of temperature in radiation damage 208 9.4.6 Energy spectra and damage energies 208 9.5 Effects of elevated temperature 210 9.5.1 Heat generated by gamma and neutron irradiation 210 9.5.2 Thermal expansion and thermal conductivity 212 9.6 Deterioration of concrete due to long-term radiation 213 9.6.1 Constituents and microstructure of concrete 213 9.6.2 Creep 217 9.6.3 Decrease of mechanical properties 217 9.6.4 Radiation-induced alkali–silica reaction 221 References 223 Further reading 227 10 Self-compacting concrete (SCC) 229 10.1 Significance of self-compacting concrete 229 10.1.1 Productivity 229 10.1.2 Working environment 230 10.1.3 Definitions 230 10.2 Selected properties of self-compacting concrete 230 10.2.1 Fresh SCC—a suspension and a composite material 230 10.2.2 Composite model–based proportioning methods 233 10.2.3 Filling ability and rheological properties 233 10.2.4 Passing ability 236 10.2.5 Resistance to segregation 236 10.2.6 Formwork pressure 238 10.2.7 Air-void stability 238 10.2.8 Pumpability 238 10.3 Applications/case studies 240 10.3.1 Case 1: Multipurpose sports facility at Uranienborg, Oslo, Norway, 2017–19 240 10.3.2 Case 2: small bridge over new motorway at Give, Denmark, 2006–07 241 10.3.3 Case 3: walls in basement, Danish Broadcasting Corporation, 2005–06 242 10.3.4 Case 4: Mori Tower Roppongi Hills, completed in 2003 245 10.4 Future trends 245 10.4.1 Sustainability 246 10.4.2 Robustness and compatibility of constituent materials 246 10.4.3 Modeling of flow and virtual mix design 247 10.5 Sources of further information and advice 247 10.5.1 Guidelines 247 10.5.2 Standardization 249 References 252 11 Fiber-reinforced concrete 257 11.1 Introduction 257 11.2 Material properties 258 11.2.1 How do fibers work? 258 11.2.2 Types of fibers 259 11.2.3 Mix proportioning, fabrication, and placement 260 11.2.4 What do fibers actually do? 261 11.2.4.1 Toughness 261 11.2.4.2 Impact resistance 263 11.2.4.3 Shrinkage 264 11.2.5 Hybrid fiber systems 264 11.2.6 High-performance fiber-reinforced concrete 265 11.2.6.1 Engineered cementitious composites 265 11.2.6.2 Ultrahigh-performance fiber-reinforced concrete 266 11.3 Structural use of fiber-reinforced concrete 267 11.3.1 Introduction 267 11.3.2 Performance-based design 268 11.3.3 Optimized reinforcement 269 11.3.4 Fiber-reinforced concrete for service conditions 270 11.3.5 Fiber-reinforced concrete at ultimate limit state for linear elements 272 11.3.5.1 Bending and axial compression 272 11.3.5.2 Shear in beams 275 11.3.5.3 Torsion in beams 277 11.3.6 Fiber-reinforced concrete slabs 277 11.3.6.1 Slabs on grade 277 11.3.6.2 Elevated slabs 277 11.3.6.3 Punching in slabs 280 11.3.7 Fiber-reinforced concrete tunnel segments 281 11.3.8 Fiber-reinforced concrete for precast elements 283 11.3.9 Fiber-reinforced concrete for structural rehabilitation 283 References 284 12 Advances in sprayed concrete (shotcrete) 288 12.1 Introduction 288 12.2 Mix proportioning and process implications 289 12.3 Strength and stiffness 292 12.4 Kinematics and rebound 293 12.5 Toughness, impact resistance, and fiber reinforcement 299 12.6 Highly deformable fiber-reinforced shotcrete for seismic strengthening 301 12.7 Concluding remarks 303 Acknowledgments 303 References 304 13 Lightweight concrete 306 13.1 Introduction 306 13.1.1 Terminology 307 13.1.2 Nature of lightweight concrete 307 13.1.3 History of lightweight concrete 310 13.2 Applications/case studies 314 13.2.1 Structural applications 314 13.3 Production of lightweight concrete 316 13.4 Future trends 318 13.5 Sources of further information and advice 320 References 320 14 Design and evaluation of underwater concrete 323 14.1 Introduction 323 14.2 Development of underwater concrete 324 14.3 Underwater concrete materials 325 14.3.1 Aggregates 325 14.3.2 Portland cement 325 14.3.3 Viscosity enhancing admixtures 326 14.4 Quality control of underwater concrete 326 14.4.1 Flow/spread test 326 14.4.2 The Orimet test 327 14.4.3 The washout-resistance test 328 14.4.4 The plunge test 329 14.4.5 The filling ability test 332 14.5 Application/case study 333 14.5.1 Design of underwater concrete mixtures (Sonebi, Tamimi, & Bell, 2000) 333 14.5.2 Placement methods of underwater concrete 339 References 339 15 Autoclaved aerated concrete 342 15.1 Introduction to autoclaved aerated concrete 342 15.1.1 Historical background of autoclaved aerated concrete 342 15.1.2 Autoclaved aerated concrete products 343 15.1.3 Materials used in autoclaved aerated concrete 343 15.1.4 How autoclaved aerated concrete is made 344 15.1.5 Autoclaved aerated concrete strength classes 345 15.1.6 Dimensions of autoclaved aerated concrete units 345 15.2 Applications of autoclaved aerated concrete 347 15.3 Structural design of autoclaved aerated concrete elements 348 15.3.1 Integrated US design context for autoclaved aerated concrete elements and structures 348 15.3.2 US design and construction provisions for elements and structures of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry 349 15.3.2.1 US design provisions for reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete panels 350 15.3.2.2 Examples of design provisions for reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete panels outside of the United States 350 15.3.3 Handling, erection, and construction with autoclaved aerated concrete elements 351 15.3.4 Electrical and plumbing installations in autoclaved aerated concrete 352 15.3.5 Exterior finishes for autoclaved aerated concrete 352 15.3.6 Interior finishes for autoclaved aerated concrete 353 15.3.7 Typical construction details for autoclaved aerated concrete elements 353 15.4 Seismic design of autoclaved aerated concrete structures 353 15.4.1 Basic earthquake resistance mechanism of autoclaved aerated concrete structures 355 15.4.2 Seismic design factors (R and Cd) for ductile autoclaved aerated concrete shear-wall structures in the United States 355 15.4.3 ASTM specifications for autoclaved aerated concrete construction 356 References 357 Further reading 358 16 Foamed concrete 361 16.1 Introduction 361 16.2 Definitions and classifications 361 16.3 Materials 362 16.3.1 Portland cement 362 16.3.2 Mineral admixtures 363 16.3.3 Aggregates 364 16.3.4 Foaming agents 364 16.4 Mix design 365 16.5 Production of foamed concrete 366 16.6 Properties of foamed concrete 367 16.6.1 Properties of fresh concrete 367 16.6.1.1 Workability and water demand 367 16.6.1.2 Density 368 16.6.1.3 Heat of hydration 369 16.6.1.4 Curing 370 16.6.2 Properties of hardened concrete 370 16.6.2.1 Compressive strength 370 16.6.2.2 Modulus of elasticity 372 16.6.2.3 Thermal properties 373 16.6.2.4 Porosity 373 16.6.2.5 Fire resistance 374 16.6.2.6 Shrinkage 374 16.6.2.7 Water absorption 375 16.6.2.8 Permeability 375 16.6.2.9 Freeze–thaw resistance 376 16.6.2.10 Walkability 377 16.6.2.11 Other issues in durability 377 16.7 Fiber-reinforced foamed concrete 378 16.8 Alkali-activated foamed concrete 379 16.9 Applications 380 16.10 Research needs 381 References 382 17 Polymer concrete 387 17.1 Introduction 387 17.2 Materials, mixture design, production, and mechanical properties 388 17.3 Applications 393 17.4 Sustainable polymer concrete 395 17.5 Standards for quality control 397 17.6 New developments 397 References 402 Index 405 Back Cover 420 Content: Front Cover Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete Copyright Page Contents List of contributors Introduction Reference I. Materials 1 Sustainability of concrete 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Steps to sustainability 1.1.2 Replacing cement with supplementary cementing materials 1.1.3 Improving concrete durability 1.1.4 Use high-strength concrete 1.1.5 Producing more efficient concrete mixes 1.1.6 Other paths to sustainability 1.1.7 Water 1.1.8 Education References Further reading 2 Recycled materials in concrete 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Supplementary cementing materials2.2.1 Fly ash 2.2.2 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 2.3 Recycled aggregates 2.4 Electric arc furnace slag 2.5 Recycled waste glass 2.6 Recycled tires 2.7 Recycled plastics 2.8 Other recycled materials 2.9 Future trends References 3 Supplementary cementing materials 3.1 Introduction to supplementary cementing materials 3.1.1 Fly ash 3.1.2 Slag cement 3.1.3 Silica fume 3.1.4 Metakaolin 3.2 Chemical reactivity and hydration 3.2.1 Fly ash 3.2.2 Slag cement 3.2.3 Silica fume 3.2.4 Metakaolin 3.3 Fresh properties 3.3.1 Fly ash 3.3.2 Slag cement3.3.3 Silica fume 3.3.4 Metakaolin 3.4 Mechanical properties 3.4.1 Fly ash 3.4.2 Slag cement 3.4.3 Silica fume 3.4.4 Metakaolin 3.5 Transport properties 3.6 Durability 3.6.1 Corrosion 3.6.1.1 Chloride ingress 3.6.1.2 Carbonation 3.6.2 Freeze-thaw and de-icer salt scaling 3.6.3 Alkali-silica reaction 3.6.4 Sulfate attack 3.7 Sustainability 3.8 Current needs 3.8.1 Availability of supplementary cementing materials 3.8.2 Concrete performance subjected to coupled degradation mechanisms 3.8.3 Environmental impact assessment of concrete containing supplementary cementing materialsAcknowledgments References 4 Alkali-aggregate reaction 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of alkali-aggregate reaction 4.2.1 Alkali-silica reaction 4.2.2 Alkali-carbonate rock reaction 4.3 Mechanism of alkali-silica reaction 4.4 Necessary requirements for alkali-silica reaction 4.4.1 Alkalis 4.4.2 Reactive silica 4.4.3 Environment and moisture 4.5 Assessing aggregates for alkali-aggregate reaction-potential 4.5.1 Initial screening tests 4.5.2 Indicator tests 4.5.3 Performance tests 4.5.4 RILEM Technical Committee contributions4.5.5 Drawing conclusions from tests for alkali-aggregate reaction-susceptibility 4.6 Practical measures to avoid or minimize alkali-silica reaction 4.6.1 Reducing the effect of alkalis, including use of supplementary cementitious materials 4.6.2 Avoiding the use of alkali-reactive aggregates 4.6.3 Modifying the environment to reduce the moisture content of the concrete References 5 Corrosion of steel in concrete 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Carbonation initiation of reinforcement corrosion 5.3 Chloride initiation of reinforcement corrosion

Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete, Second Edition, presents the latest developments on topics covered in the first edition. In addition, it includes new chapters on supplementary cementitious materials, mass concrete, the sustainably of concrete, service life prediction, limestone cements, the corrosion of steel in concrete, alkali-aggregate reactions, and concrete as a multiscale material. The book's chapters introduce the reader to some of the most important issues facing today's concrete industry. With its distinguished editor and international team of contributors, users will find this to be a must-have reference for civil and structural engineers.

• Summarizes a wealth of recent research on structural concrete, including material microstructure, concrete types, and variation and construction techniques
• Emphasizes concrete mixture design and applications in civil and structural engineering
• Reviews modern concrete materials and novel construction systems, such as the precast industry and structures requiring high-performance concrete