Development of oral cancer : risk factors and prevention strategies

This book aims to provide the reader with a complete understanding of the development of oral cancer by explaining the role of a wide variety of implicated risk factors and identifying their gene targets and key regulators. Some of the discussed risk factors are well known, including smoking, alcohol, betel quid chewing, and oncoviruses such as high-risk human papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr virus; however, careful attention is also paid to less widely recognized factors, such as Qat chewing and yerba Mate consumption. The book concludes by describing and evaluating the most important strategies currently available for the prevention of oral carcinogenesis in humans. In presenting the most up-todate research and knowledge on these topics, this book will serve as a valuable source of up-to-date information for oncologists, cancer scientists, and medical students. Read more... Abstract: This book aims to provide the reader with a complete understanding of the development of oral cancer by explaining the role of a wide variety of implicated risk factors and identifying their gene targets and key regulators. Read more... Preface 5 Contents 7 1: Human Oral Cancer (Epidemiology and Characteristic) 9 1.1 Introduction 9 1.2 Oral Cancer Epidemiology 10 1.2.1 Incidence and Mortality 10 1.2.2 Age and Gender 15 1.2.3 Site 17 1.2.4 Trends and Variations 17 1.2.5 2035 Projection 18 1.2.6 Survival 19 1.3 Clinical Characteristics 21 1.4 Early Detection and Prevention of Oral Cancer 23 1.4.1 Primary Prevention 23 1.4.2 Secondary Prevention (Screening) 24 References 25 2: Novel Developments in the Molecular Genetic Basis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) 30 2.1 Introduction 30 2.2 Transcriptional Factors 31 2.3 Tumor Suppressor Genes or Anti-oncogenes 31 2.4 Proto-oncogenes and Oncogenes 32 2.5 Gene Expression 33 2.6 Cell Surface Receptors 34 2.7 Epigenetic Changes 34 2.8 Chromosomal Instability and Copy Number Variation 35 2.9 mtDNA Mutation 36 2.10 Telomeres and Telomerase 36 2.11 Microsatellite Instability and Alteration 36 2.12 Noncoding RNA 37 2.13 MicroRNA (miRNA) 37 2.14 Long Noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) 38 References 41 3: Oral Cancer: After the Completion of the Human Genome Project 45 3.1 Gene Profiling: (A Personal Journey) 45 3.2 Drug Design to Shut Off Bad Genes 50 References 54 4: Smoking and Oral Cancer 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 History of Tobacco Usage 55 4.3 Cigarettes and Other Forms of Tobacco Preparations 56 4.4 Composition and Carcinogenesis 57 4.5 Effects on Oral Health 59 4.5.1 Oral Hygiene and Aesthetics 60 4.5.2 Oral Mucosal Diseases: Nonmalignant 60 4.5.3 Oral Premalignant Disorders 60 4.5.4 Oral Cancer 61 4.6 Prevention Strategies 61 References 62 5: Alcohol and Oral Cancer 66 5.1 Introduction 66 5.2 Alcohol and Oral Cancer: Epidemiological Evidence 67 5.3 Alcoholic Beverages and Weekly Consumption 68 5.4 Topical Effects 71 5.5 Systemic Effects 72 5.6 Synergistic Effects with Tobacco Use 73 5.7 Alcohol-Related Oral Carcinogenesis 73 5.8 Alcohol-Containing Mouthwashes and Oral Cancer 76 5.9 Prevention 79 References 80 6: High-Risk Human Papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr Virus Presence and Crosstalk in Human Oral Carcinogenesis 88 6.1 Introduction 88 6.2 High-Risk Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs) in Human Cancer 89 6.3 Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) in Human Cancer 90 6.4 High Risk of HPVs and EBV in Human Oral Cancer 91 6.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 94 References 95 7: Oral Cancer: Epidemiology and Infections (Bacterial and Fungal) Global Incidence 100 7.1 Introduction 100 7.2 Worldwide Incidence of Oral Cancer by Gender, Age and Primary Site 102 7.3 Oral Cancer Mortality and Survival 108 7.4 Bacteria and Cancer 109 7.4.1 Anatomy 110 7.4.2 Clinical Presentation 110 7.4.3 Pathology 110 7.4.4 Virus 112 7.4.4.1 HPV 112 7.4.4.2 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 112 7.4.4.3 Herpes Simplex Virus 113 7.4.5 Dental Considerations 113 7.4.5.1 Hygiene 113 7.4.5.2 Dentures 113 7.4.5.3 Oral Cancer in the UAE 113 References 115 8: Oral Cancer and Chewing Habits 119 8.1 Introduction 119 8.2 Oral Cancer Statistics: Global Incidence, Prevalence, Mortality, and Survival 119 8.3 Epidemiology in Asia: A Region with High Burden of Oral Cancer 120 8.4 Risk Factors 120 8.4.1 Betel Quid and Tobacco Chewing 120 8.4.1.1 Preparations of Chewing Products and Geographic Prevalence of Usage 121 8.4.1.2 Cultural Significance: Accounting for Widespread Use 122 8.4.1.3 Pan Masala and Gutka: Betel Quid Alternative Products 123 8.4.1.4 Carcinogenesis 124 8.4.1.5 Oral Manifestations 125 8.4.1.6 Betel Chewer’s Mucosa 125 8.4.1.7 Betel Quid Lichenoid Lesion 125 8.4.1.8 Potentially Premalignant Disorders (PMDs): Leukoplakia, Erythroplakia, and OSF 125 8.4.1.9 Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) 126 8.4.1.10 Systemic Effects and Addictive Potential 127 8.4.2 Tobacco Smoking and Alcohol Consumption 127 8.4.3 Human Papillomavirus (HPV) 127 8.4.4 Socioeconomic Status (SES) 128 8.4.5 Diet 129 8.4.6 Oral Hygiene 129 8.5 Primary Prevention 129 8.6 Secondary Prevention: Screening Methods 130 References 131 9: Role of Qat Chewing and Mate Consumption in Human Oral Carcinogenesis 137 9.1 Introduction 137 9.2 Qat and Oral Cancer 138 9.3 Mate Drinking and Its Role in Oral Carcinogenesis 142 References 146 10: Photodynamic Diagnosis and Therapy for Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Cancers 150 10.1 Introduction 150 10.2 Brief History 151 10.3 Concept Behind PDD and PDT 151 10.4 Elements of PDD and PDT 153 10.4.1 Photosensitizer (PS) 153 10.4.2 Light 155 10.4.3 Tissue Oxygen 156 10.5 Cell Death Mechanisms After PDT 156 10.5.1 Apoptosis, Necrosis, and Autophagy 156 10.5.2 Vascular Cessation 159 10.5.3 Immunostimulation 160 10.6 Major Advantages of PDD and PDT in Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 161 10.6.1 Easily Combined with Standard Diagnostics and Therapies 161 10.6.2 Better Selectivity and Less Side Effects 162 10.6.3 Repetitive Treatment Does Not Evoke Cancer Resistance 162 10.6.4 Noninvasive Method for Both Diagnosis and Treatment 163 10.6.5 Early Stage of Cancer Development Can Be Diagnosed Accurately and Treated 163 10.7 Clinical Studies of PDT and PDD in Oral Cancer Management 164 10.8 Where Does PDD/PDT Currently Stand? 167 10.9 Limitations and Possible Side Effects 167 10.10 Future Aspects 168 10.10.1 Photochemical Internalization (PCI) 168 10.10.2 New Drug Delivery Systems: The Road for Third-­Generation PS 168 10.10.3 Administration of PDD and PDT Response: Enhancers 169 References 170 11: Role of Nutrition in Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers: From Etiology to Prevention 179 11.1 Introduction 179 11.2 Food Groups and Risk of OPC 180 11.2.1 Fruits and Vegetables 180 11.2.2 Legumes and Plant-Based Proteins 182 11.2.3 Meats and Animal Foods 183 11.2.4 Dietary Fats 184 11.3 Micronutrients and Risk of Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers 185 11.3.1 Vitamin A 185 11.3.2 Vitamin E 186 11.3.3 Vitamin C 186 11.3.4 Selenium 187 11.3.5 Iron 187 11.3.6 Folate 188 11.4 Bioactive Phytochemicals and Risk of Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers 189 11.4.1 Carotenoids 189 11.4.2 Flavonoids 189 11.5 Chemopreventive and Etiological Mechanisms of Action of Dietary Factors 190 11.5.1 Etiological Mechanisms 190 11.5.2 Chemopreventive Mechanisms 191 References 191 12: Prevention of Oral Cancer 195 12.1 Introduction 195 12.2 Primary Prevention 197 12.2.1 Relevant Exposures 197 12.2.2 HPV Vaccination as Primary Prevention 200 12.2.3 Approaches to Support Exposure Reduction 200 12.2.4 Barriers to Primary Prevention 201 12.3 Secondary Prevention 202 12.3.1 Understanding Screening 202 12.3.2 Treating Chronic Infections 204 12.3.3 Secondary Chemoprevention 206 12.4 Tertiary Prevention 208 12.4.1 Genetic Screening and Counseling 208 12.4.2 Chemoprevention, Oncolytic Therapy, and Immunotherapy 211 12.4.3 Oral Cancer Prevention and Immunosuppression 212 12.4.4 Barriers to Secondary and Tertiary Preventions 213 References 215 Front Matter ....Pages i-viii Human Oral Cancer (Epidemiology and Characteristic) (Omar Kujan)....Pages 1-21 Novel Developments in the Molecular Genetic Basis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) (Nader I Al-Dewik, M. Walid Qoronfleh)....Pages 23-37 Oral Cancer: After the Completion of the Human Genome Project (A. Hameed Khan)....Pages 39-48 Smoking and Oral Cancer (Brooj Abro, Shahid Pervez)....Pages 49-59 Alcohol and Oral Cancer (Omar Kujan, Abdulhameed Husain, Camile S. Farah)....Pages 61-82 High-Risk Human Papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr Virus Presence and Crosstalk in Human Oral Carcinogenesis (Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa, Farhan S. Cyprian, Noor Al-Antary, Amber Yasmeen)....Pages 83-94 Oral Cancer: Epidemiology and Infections (Bacterial and Fungal) Global Incidence (Mohammed Jaloudi, Maria Aamir, Mohammad Ahmad Lahej Alfelasi, Jihad Kanbar)....Pages 95-113 Oral Cancer and Chewing Habits (Shahid Pervez, Brooj Abro)....Pages 115-132 Role of Qat Chewing and Mate Consumption in Human Oral Carcinogenesis (Amal Kassab, Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa)....Pages 133-145 Photodynamic Diagnosis and Therapy for Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Cancers (Sara A. Abdel Gaber)....Pages 147-175 Role of Nutrition in Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers: From Etiology to Prevention (Hiba Bawadi, “Mo’ez Al-Islam” Faris)....Pages 177-192 Prevention of Oral Cancer (Ahmed Mohamed Malki, Samira Bou Raad, Rasha Abu-El-Ruz)....Pages 193-217