Design and Manufacture of Textile Composites (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

The term 'textile composites' is often used to describe a rather narrow range of materials, based on three-dimensional reinforcements produced using specialist equipment. In Design and manufacture of textile composites, however, the term is used to describe the broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements, from woven and non-crimp commodity fabrics to three dimensional textiles. Whilst attention is given to modelling of textile structures, composites manufacturing methods and subsequent component performance, it is substantially a practical book, intended to help all those developing new products with textile composites. Chapters on modelling include material models and data of use to both researchers and manufacturers, along with case studies for real components. Chapters on manufacturing describe both current processing technologies and emerging areas, and give practical processing guidelines. The last section contains a number of chapters covering applications from a broad range of areas, including transportation, sporting construction and medical applications. As well as illustrating typical components in each area, associated design methodologies and interactions between processing and performance are covered. Design and manufacture of textile composites is an invaluable guide for manufacturers of polymer composite components, end-users and designers, researchers in the fields of structural materials and technical textiles and textile manufacturers. It will also provide manufacturers of traditional textiles with new areas to investigate and potential markets. Covers a broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcementsEdited by a leading authority in the field with contributions from a worldwide team of authors 000b3ff9......Page 1 Design & Manufacture of Textile Composites......Page 2 Design and manufacture of textile composites......Page 4 Contents......Page 6 Contributor contact details......Page 10 Introduction......Page 14 References......Page 17 1.1 Hierarchy of textile materials......Page 18 1.2.2 Linear density, twist, dimensions and fibrous structure of yarns......Page 19 1.2.3 Mechanical properties of yarns......Page 22 Bending of textile yarns......Page 23 Compression of textile yarns......Page 25 1.3.1 Parameters and manufacturing of woven fabric......Page 27 Weft insertion......Page 28 Shedding mechanisms......Page 30 Fundamental weaves......Page 31 Tightness of a 2D weave......Page 34 Multilayered weaves......Page 35 1.3.3 Geometry of yarn crimp......Page 38 Elastica model......Page 40 Mixed model......Page 41 Plain weave, compressible yarns......Page 42 Braiding process......Page 44 Braid patterns and braiding angle......Page 46 1.4.2 Internal geometry of 2D braids......Page 49 1.4.3 3D braided fabrics......Page 50 1.5.1 Terminology and classification......Page 52 1.5.2 Manufacturing......Page 53 Warp knitting......Page 54 Geometry of the stitching loop......Page 57 Interactions of the stitching with fibrous plies......Page 59 1.6.1 Yarn path mode......Page 64 Geometric approach......Page 66 Mechanical approach......Page 67 Using yarn path mode......Page 69 Using fibre distribution mode......Page 70 1.6.3 Implementation of textile hierarchical model......Page 72 References......Page 77 2.1 Introduction......Page 79 2.2.1 Characterisation techniques......Page 80 2.2.2 In-plane shear modelling......Page 85 2.3.1 Introduction to tensile behaviour of textiles......Page 90 2.3.2 Tensile behaviour surfaces......Page 92 2.3.3 Experimental analysis of the biaxial tensile behaviour......Page 93 Balanced glass plain weave......Page 94 Highly unbalanced glass plain weave......Page 95 2.3.4 Analytical models......Page 98 Kawabata model......Page 99 A geometrically consistent yarn model for fabric tensile biaxial behaviour......Page 100 2.3.5 3D finite element analysis of the unit cell under tension......Page 102 2.4.1 Importance of compaction in the processing textile preforms and composites......Page 105 2.4.2 Scope of the section......Page 109 2.4.3 Basic compaction and relaxation curves......Page 113 2.4.4 Effects of variable parameters......Page 116 2.4.5 Modelling......Page 121 References......Page 124 3.1 Introduction......Page 127 3.2 Deformation mechanisms......Page 128 3.3 Review of constitutive modelling work......Page 133 3.3.1 The ideal fibre reinforced model for viscous fluids......Page 134 3.3.2 Constitutive behaviour of viscous uniaxial CFRC......Page 136 3.3.3 Constitutive models for viscous textile composites based on the IFRM......Page 139 3.3.5 Explicit constitutive models for viscous textile composites with fibre extensibility......Page 142 3.3.6 Shear force prediction for viscous textile composites based on energy summation......Page 143 3.4.1 Picture frame test......Page 146 3.4.2 Bias extension test......Page 148 3.4.3 Normalisation of characterisation test results......Page 150 3.5 Forming evaluation methods......Page 154 3.5.1 Shear deformation......Page 155 3.5.2 Secondary deformation mechanisms......Page 157 3.7 Acknowledgements......Page 159 3.8 References......Page 160 4.2.1 Kinematic models......Page 166 4.2.2 Iterative draping simulation......Page 168 4.3.1 Introduction......Page 172 4.3.2 Non-orthogonal constitutive model......Page 174 Fibre directional properties......Page 176 Shear properties......Page 177 Stamping simulation for woven dry fabric......Page 179 Stamping simulation for woven thermoplastic prepreg......Page 182 Forming simulation of NCF preform......Page 185 4.4 Concluding remarks and future direction......Page 192 4.6 References......Page 195 5.2 Pre-impregnated composites......Page 198 5.2.1 Material systems......Page 199 5.2.3 Processing of prepregs......Page 200 5.2.5 Hybrid systems......Page 202 5.2.6 Conclusion......Page 203 5.3 Liquid moulding of textile composites......Page 204 5.3.1 Resin transfer moulding (RTM)......Page 206 5.3.2 Vacuum infusion (VI)......Page 208 5.3.3 Structural reaction injection moulding (SRIM)......Page 210 5.3.4 Resin film infusion (RFI)......Page 211 5.4 References......Page 213 6.1 Introduction......Page 214 6.2.1 Impregnation......Page 215 6.2.2 Consolidation of thermoplastic textile composites......Page 217 6.2.3 Effect of fabric deformation on consolidation......Page 219 6.2.4 Void content reduction......Page 220 6.2.5 Internal stresses and spring-back phenomena......Page 221 6.3.1 Thermoplastic matrix materials......Page 222 6.3.2 Bulk melt impregnation......Page 223 6.3.4 Commingling......Page 225 6.3.5 Powder impregnation......Page 231 6.3.7 In-situ polymerisation......Page 232 Anionic polymerisation of polyamides......Page 233 6.4.1 Process windows for textile-based thermoplastic composites......Page 234 Vacuum forming of thermoplastic composites......Page 235 Diaphragm forming......Page 238 Bladder inflation moulding......Page 240 Reactive thermoplastic RTM......Page 242 6.4.3 High-pressure processing......Page 243 Preheating technology for stamp-forming processes......Page 244 Blank-holders and membrane forces......Page 246 Elastomeric tool forming......Page 247 Hydroforming......Page 248 Rapid stamp-forming with matched rigid moulds......Page 249 6.5.1 Co-compression moulding of textile preforms with a flowable core......Page 250 6.5.2 Over-injection moulding of stamped preforms......Page 252 6.7 Acknowledgements......Page 253 6.8 References......Page 254 7.1 Liquid composite molding processes......Page 259 7.2 Flow through porous media......Page 261 7.3 Liquid injection molding simulation......Page 264 Interaction with LIMS......Page 265 Procedures......Page 266 Virtual experimentation environment......Page 267 7.3.2 Process model in design, optimization and control......Page 270 7.4.1 Problem statement......Page 271 7.4.2 Branch and bound search......Page 272 7.4.3 Case study: minimum fill time......Page 275 7.5 Disturbances in the mold filling process......Page 276 7.5.1 Modeling a racetracking channel......Page 280 Simulation stage......Page 282 Experiment stage......Page 283 7.5.3 Successful mold filling despite racetracking......Page 284 7.6 Active control......Page 285 7.6.1 Simulation-based liquid injection control (SLIC)......Page 286 7.6.2 Case study: rectangular mold with triangular insert......Page 287 7.6.3 Gate effectiveness......Page 288 7.7 Passive control......Page 291 7.7.1 Optimization problem......Page 293 7.7.2 Last-filled region and vent fitness maps......Page 295 7.7.3 Combinatorial search (CS)......Page 298 7.7.4 Case study: the window pane mold......Page 299 7.8 Conclusion......Page 302 7.9.2 Optimal placement of flow enhancement media......Page 303 7.9.4 Feasible target flow pattern selection in set point-based active control......Page 304 7.11 References......Page 305 8.2 Elastic behaviour......Page 309 8.2.1 Fundamentals: orthotropic solids......Page 310 Measurement of unidirectional and laminate properties: testing methods......Page 313 Rule of mixtures......Page 314 The Halpin–Tsai equations......Page 315 Hashin’s composite cylinder assemblage model......Page 316 8.2.3 Off-axis behaviour and laminates......Page 317 8.2.4 Analysis of practical textile-reinforced composites......Page 319 Analysis of woven, braided and knitted textiles......Page 320 Iso-stress and iso-strain assumptions......Page 321 Approaches based upon classical laminate theory......Page 322 Approaches based upon 3D FE modelling of the unit cell......Page 324 8.2.5 Finite element modelling of textile composite components......Page 325 Elements for analysing moderately thick laminates......Page 327 3D orthotropic elements......Page 328 8.3 Failure and impact behaviour......Page 329 8.3.1 Solution strategies for FE failure analyses......Page 330 Ply constitutive and failure models......Page 332 The Tsai–Wu quadratic failure criterion......Page 333 Ply failure modelling using damage mechanics......Page 334 Delamination modelling......Page 336 Impact simulation of a laminated carbon fabric composite plate......Page 339 Failure simulation of stitched composite ‘T’ joint......Page 341 8.4 References......Page 344 9.1 Introduction......Page 347 9.2.1 Fibres......Page 349 Carbon fibres......Page 350 Boron fibres......Page 351 9.2.2 Matrix polymers......Page 352 Polyester resins......Page 353 Vinyl ester resins......Page 355 Epoxy resins......Page 356 Phenolic resins......Page 359 Thermoplastic resins......Page 361 Resin–matrix interface......Page 362 9.3 Flammability of composite structures......Page 363 9.4.1 Use of inherently flame-resistant resins and/or fibres......Page 366 Conventional flame retardants......Page 367 Intumescents......Page 368 9.4.3 Use of external coatings and outer protective surfaces......Page 374 9.5 Conclusions......Page 376 9.6 References......Page 377 10.1 Introduction......Page 381 10.2.2 Technical cost modelling......Page 383 Fixed and variable costs......Page 384 Model structure......Page 385 10.2.3 Process-flow simulation tool......Page 388 PFS input and operation......Page 389 10.3.1 A materials perspective......Page 391 10.3.3 Effect of manufacturing volume......Page 393 10.3.4 Typical process machine cost......Page 395 10.3.5 Tooling costs......Page 396 10.3.7 Assembly costs......Page 397 10.4.1 Ford Thunderbird X-brace component......Page 399 10.4.2 Thermoplastic composite material systems......Page 400 10.4.3 Weight saving assumptions......Page 401 10.4.4 Manufacturing process......Page 402 10.4.5 Effect of material type......Page 403 10.4.6 Plant utilisation: dedicated vs. utilisation based......Page 404 Utilisation-based plant......Page 405 Dedicated plant scenario......Page 406 Utilisation-based two-plant scenario......Page 407 10.4.7 X-brace production sensitivity studies......Page 408 Effect of plant investment......Page 409 Effect of reject rate......Page 410 Recycling strategy......Page 411 Effect of tooling cost......Page 412 10.5.2 Composite material systems for A380 fuselage panels......Page 413 10.5.4 Manufacturing process performance......Page 415 10.5.5 Assessment on an aircraft section level......Page 418 10.8 References......Page 419 11.1 Introduction......Page 422 11.2 Developments in woven fabric applications using standard prepreg processing......Page 423 11.3 Carbon fibre multiaxial fabric developments......Page 425 11.3.1 Fabric development......Page 426 11.3.2 Stitching thread......Page 428 11.3.4 Lighter-weight fabrics......Page 429 Example 2: Multiaxial fabric components – RFI, using resin film blocks......Page 431 11.4.1 Unidirectional fabrics......Page 433 11.5 Braided materials......Page 434 11.6 Tailored fibre placement......Page 435 11.7.1 Textile assembly......Page 436 11.7.2 Preforming using heat-activated binder-coated fabrics......Page 437 11.7.3 Preform assembly using stitching yarns......Page 438 11.8 Repair of fabric components......Page 440 12.2 Fibre reinforced polymers......Page 441 12.3 Membrane structures......Page 443 12.4.1 Boots building, Nottingham (FRP strengthening)......Page 446 12.5 Future developments......Page 448 12.6 References......Page 452 13.1 Splinting material......Page 453 13.2 Walking support frame......Page 455 13.3 Bone plates......Page 456 13.4 General application......Page 458 13.5 Living composites......Page 459 14.1 Introduction......Page 461 14.2.1 Reinforcing fibres......Page 462 14.2.2 Resins......Page 463 14.3.2 Reinforcement shapes......Page 464 14.3.4 Material partition and positioning......Page 465 14.4.2 Discontinuous processes......Page 466 14.5.3 Bicycles......Page 467 14.5.4 Golf......Page 468 14.5.6 Tennis......Page 469 14.5.7 Kayaks......Page 470 14.5.8 Skis and snowboards......Page 471 14.5.9 Ice hockey......Page 472 14.8 References......Page 473 Glossary......Page 475 The term ‘textile composites’ is often used to describe a rather narrow range of materials, based on three-dimensional reinforcements produced using specialist equipment. In Design and manufacture of textile composites, however, the term is used to describe the broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements, from woven and non-crimp commodity fabrics to three dimensional textiles.

Whilst attention is given to modelling of textile structures, composites manufacturing methods and subsequent component performance, it is substantially a practical book, intended to help all those developing new products with textile composites. Chapters on modelling include material models and data of use to both researchers and manufacturers, along with case studies for real components. Chapters on manufacturing describe both current processing technologies and emerging areas, and give practical processing guidelines. The last section contains a number of chapters covering applications from a broad range of areas, including transportation, sporting construction and medical applications. As well as illustrating typical components in each area, associated design methodologies and interactions between processing and performance are covered.

Design and manufacture of textile composites is an invaluable guide for manufacturers of polymer composite components, end-users and designers, researchers in the fields of structural materials and technical textiles and textile manufacturers. It will also provide manufacturers of traditional textiles with new areas to investigate and potential markets.

• Covers a broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements
• Edited by a leading authority in the field with contributions from a worldwide team of authors

The term 'textile composites' is often used to describe a rather narrow range of materials, based on three-dimensional reinforcements produced using specialist equipment. In Design and manufacture of textile composites, however, the term is used to describe the broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements, from woven and non-crimp commodity fabrics to three dimensional textiles.Whilst attention is given to modelling of textile structures, composites manufacturing methods and subsequent component performance, it is substantially a practical book, intended to help all those developing new products with textile composites. Chapters on modelling include material models and data of use to both researchers and manufacturers, along with case studies for real components. Chapters on manufacturing describe both current processing technologies and emerging areas, and give practical processing guidelines. The last section contains a number of chapters covering applications from a broad range of areas, including transportation, sporting construction and medical applications. As well as illustrating typical components in each area, associated design methodologies and interactions between processing and performance are covered.Design and manufacture of textile composites is an invaluable guide for manufacturers of polymer composite components, end-users and designers, researchers in the fields of structural materials and technical textiles and textile manufacturers. It will also provide manufacturers of traditional textiles with new areas to investigate and potential markets. Covers a broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements Edited by a leading authority in the field with contributions from a worldwide team of authors Textile composites encompass a rather narrow range of materials, based on three-dimensional reinforcements produced using specialist equipment. This book describes the design, manufacture and applications of textile composites. The intention is to describe the broad range of polymer composite materials with textile reinforcements, from woven and non-crimp commodity fabrics to 3-D textiles and their applications. The book gives particular attention to the modelling of textile structures, composites manufacturing methods, and subsequent component performance. This practical book is an invaluable guide for manufacturers of polymer composite components, end-users and designers, structural materials researchers, and textile manufacturers involved in the development of new products with textile composites. An invaluable guide for manufacturers of polymer composite components, end-users and designers, researchers in the fields of structural materials and technical textiles and textile manufacturers. Also provides manufacturers of traditional textiles with new areas to investigate and potential markets