Degradation of Antibiotics and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria From Various Sources

The excessive use of antibiotics has given rise to an increase in microbial resistance, threatening our ability to treat infectious diseases. The growth in resistance to antimicrobials and antibiotics threatens to reverse almost a century of medical progress. urgent action plans to tackle the crisis of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and multi-resistant bacteria are needed. It is a major research task to find effective ways to reduce the release and degradation of antibiotics and ARBs to the environment. Degradations of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria from various sources addresses various issues related the generations and degradations, eliminations of antibiotics and antibiotics resistance bacteria. Degradations of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria from various sources contains both practical and theoretical latest and broad aspects of antibiotics and antibiotics resistance bacteria management through the various recent methods. Various factors which are responsible for the efficient degradations are highlighted in the Degradations of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria from various sources as separate chapters. Socioeconomic and policies on the ARBs are also discussed. Contains both practical and theoretical latest and broad aspects of antibiotics resistant bacteria Emphasizes the health impact of antibiotic resistance and genes Gives insight in the applications of anaerobic digestions for eliminations of ARBs (antibiotic resistance blockers) and ARGs (Antibiotic Resistance Genes) Shows how ARB's influences the degradation processes and management Front Cover Degradation of Antibiotics and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria From Various Sources Copyright Page Contents List of contributors 1 Antibiotic resistance: retrospect and prospect 1.1 Introduction to antibiotics 1.1.1 Natural products as conventional antibiotics and their derivatives 1.2 Antibiotics timeline 1.3 The emergence of resistance 1.4 Historical evidence of antibiotic-resistant genes 1.5 Global emerging threats 1.6 Antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens 1.6.1 Resistant Staphylococcus aureus 1.6.2 Vancomycon-resistant enterococci 1.6.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 1.6.4 Acinetobacter baumannii 1.6.5 Pseudomonas areuginosa 1.6.6 Enterobacter species 1.6.7 Escherichia coli 1.6.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 1.7 One health and antibiotic resistance 1.8 Living with superbugs 1.9 Future prospects 1.9.1 Antimicrobial resistance associated with economic and health burdens 1.10 Next-generation antibiotics 1.11 RNA-based antibiotics 1.12 CRISPR-Cas systems as alternative therapeutics 1.13 Hybrid antibiotics 1.14 Antimicrobial stewardship 1.15 Phage therapy an alternative to antibiotics 1.16 Phage antibiotic synergies 1.17 Conclusion References 2 Antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment: sources and impacts 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Antibiotic consumption and occurrence of antibiotics in the environment 2.3 Antimicrobial resistance and environment 2.4 Antimicrobial-resistant determinants in the environment 2.5 Modes of antibiotic-resistant bacteria transmission 2.5.1 Surface waters 2.5.2 Air 2.5.3 Animal vectors 2.6 Effects of antibiotics residue on the environment 2.6.1 Disruption of bacterial communities 2.6.1.1 Evolution of bacterial strains 2.6.1.2 Effect on microbial diversity and ecosystems 2.6.2 Antibiotic residue and human and animal health 2.6.2.1 Effect on the physiological functions 2.6.2.2 Alteration of microbiomes 2.7 Conclusions References 3 Ecological distribution of environmental resistome and its challenges 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Hospital effluent: a potential source for environmental resistome 3.3 Municipal sewage: a hub for environmental resistome growth 3.4 Distribution of antibiotic resistance across ecosystems 3.4.1 Antimicrobial resistance and terrestrial ecosystem 3.4.2 Antimicrobial resistance and aquatic ecosystem 3.5 Development of environmental resistome: role of veterinary farming and waste 3.6 Conclusion References 4 Current problems with the antibiotic-resistant bacteria and multiresistance bacteria 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria 4.2.1 Enterococci 4.2.2 S. aureus 4.2.3 K. pneumoniae 4.2.4 A. baumannii 4.2.5 P. aeruginosa 4.2.6 Enterobacteriaceae 4.3 Antibiotic resistance phenotypes and transfer mechanisms in bacteria 4.3.1 Intrinsic resistance 4.3.2 Acquired antibiotic resistance 4.3.2.1 Gene mutation 4.3.2.2 Horizontal gene transfer 4.3.2.2.1 Conjugation 4.3.2.2.2 Transformation 4.3.2.2.3 Transduction 4.4 Influences of antibiotic resistance 4.4.1 Global health 4.4.2 Food security 4.4.3 Economic burden 4.5 Detection methods of bacterial antibiotic-resistant genes 4.5.1 Different PCR assays 4.5.1.1 PCR 4.5.1.2 Multiple PCR 4.5.1.3 Real-time PCR 4.5.1.4 Droplet digital PCR 4.5.1.5 Reverse transcriptase PCR 4.5.2 Southern hybridization 4.5.3 Microarray 4.5.4 Metagenomic sequencing 4.6 Strategies in the battle against antibiotic resistance of bacteria 4.6.1 Appropriate application 4.6.2 Novel alternatives 4.6.3 Government administration 4.6.4 Effective detection techniques 4.7 Conclusions References 5 Antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and the environment 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Antibiotics in environment 5.1.1.1 Terrestrial (soil) ecosystem 5.1.1.2 Aquatic (river, lake, sea, and ocean) ecosystem 5.2 Sources of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment 5.2.1 Natural sources and antibiotic-resistant gene dissemination in the environment 5.2.1.1 Streams, rivers, and lakes 5.2.1.2 Seawater 5.2.1.3 Groundwater 5.2.2 Anthropogenic antibiotic sources, antibiotic-resistant genes, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment 5.2.2.1 Wastewater treatment plants 5.2.2.2 Sludge 5.2.2.3 Manure 5.2.2.4 Biomedical waste 5.2.2.5 Antibiotic resistance in the food chain 5.2.2.6 Funeral grounds/cemeteries/cadaver labs 5.3 Mechanism of resistance 5.3.1 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in environment 5.4 Future perspectives References 6 Antibiotics as contaminants of aquatic ecosystems: antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-resistant bacteria 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Sources 6.2.1 Hospitals 6.2.2 Waste water treatment plants 6.2.3 Livestock 6.2.4 Aquaculture 6.3 Antibiotic-resistant bacterias and antibiotic-resistant genes 6.4 Distribution and adverse effects of antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-resistant bacterias in aquat... 6.5 Aquatic ecosystems 6.6 Effects 6.7 Prospective and future research References 7 Antibiotics in wastewater: perspective of biological treatment processes 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Background 7.2.1 Antibiotics classification 7.2.2 Occurrence in the environment 7.2.3 Sources and pathways of antibiotics in the environment 7.2.4 Detection of antibiotics 7.3 Factors and processes influencing antibiotic removal 7.3.1 Retransformation procedures 7.3.1.1 Deconjugation of metabolites 7.3.1.2 Abiotic regeneration of metabolites and transformation products 7.3.1.3 Formation from analogs and structurally associated chemicals 7.3.1.4 Hydrolysis of particulate and colloidal matter 7.3.1.5 Desorption 7.3.2 Solid retention time 7.4 Estimation and prediction of antibiotic removal 7.4.1 Waste streams dynamics 7.4.2 Laboratory-scale estimation of process parameters 7.5 Remediation methods 7.5.1 Anerobic treatment 7.5.2 Aerobic treatment 7.5.3 Integrated anaerobic–aerobic treatment process 7.6 Conclusion References 8 Antibiotic pollution and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in water bodies 8.1 Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance 8.1.1 Antibiotics 8.1.1.1 Categorization based on antibiotic potencies 8.1.1.2 Basic antibiotic groups 8.1.1.2.1 Beta-lactams 8.1.1.2.2 Vancomycin 8.1.1.2.3 Tetracycline 8.1.1.2.4 Aminoglycosides 8.1.1.2.5 Macrolides 8.1.1.2.6 Chloramphenicol 8.1.1.2.7 Quinolones 8.1.1.2.8 Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole 8.1.2 Antibiotic resistance 8.2 Antibiotic pollution 8.2.1 Impacts on humans 8.3 Antibiotic resistance in bacteria 8.3.1 Antibiotic resistance in aquaculture and agriculture 8.3.2 Antibiotic resistance in aquatic bacteria 8.4 Impact of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on microbial diversity and ecosystems functions 8.5 Transmission of antibiotic resistance in aquatic environment 8.5.1 Vectors of antibiotic-resistant gene transmission 8.6 Mitigating the problem 8.7 Conclusion References 9 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in natural water bodies: causes, routes, and remedies 9.1 Background 9.2 Bacteria 9.2.1 Essence and effect of bacteria 9.2.2 Control of bacteria 9.3 Antibiotics, antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-resistant bacteria 9.3.1 The concept and classification of antibiotics 9.3.2 Sources and route of antibiotics 9.3.3 Interrelationship of antibiotics and bacteria 9.3.4 Common existing antibiotic groups 9.3.4.1 Beta-lactams antibiotics 9.3.4.2 Tetracycline antibiotics 9.3.4.3 Vancomycin antibiotics 9.3.4.4 Aminoglycosides antibiotics 9.3.4.5 Chloramphenicol antibiotics 9.3.4.6 Macrolides antibiotics 9.3.4.7 Quinolones antibiotics 9.3.5 The concept of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-resistant bacteria 9.3.6 Causes of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-resistant bacteria 9.4 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and natural water bodies 9.4.1 Forms of natural water bodies in the ecosystem 9.4.2 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in natural water bodies 9.4.2.1 Freshwater bodies 9.4.2.2 Aquaculture ecosystem 9.4.2.3 Irrigation water 9.4.2.4 Disinfected drinking water 9.5 Combating and curbing the impacts of AR and ARBs in natural water bodies: a sustainable approach to water security 9.6 Conclusion References 10 Impact of antibiotics on agricultural microbiome: emergence of antibiotic resistance bacteria 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Fate of antibiotics in soil environment 10.1.1.1 Antibiotics degradation in soil 10.1.2 Soil factors affecting antibiotics degradation in the environment 10.1.2.1 Soil properties 10.1.3 Soil type 10.1.4 Temperature 10.1.5 Oxygen content 10.1.6 Ionization/pH 10.1.7 Antibiotics concentration in soil 10.1.8 Soil microorganisms 10.1.9 Physiochemical properties of antibiotics affecting its degradation in soil 10.1.10 Impact of antibiotics on terrestrial and aquatic flora and fauna 10.1.11 Effect of antibiotics on soil microbial community 10.1.12 Phylogenetic analyses 10.2 Effect of antibiotics on microbial processes 10.2.1 Enzyme activities 10.3 Diversity of antimicrobial resistance genes 10.3.1 Strategies for prevention of the spread of antibiotic resistance 10.4 Conclusion References 11 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes in agriculture: a rising alarm for future 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Antibiotic use in agriculture and the rise of antibiotic resistance 11.2.1 Plant agriculture, animal husbandry, and aquaculture 11.2.1.1 Plant agriculture 11.2.1.2 Animal agriculture 11.2.1.2.1 Antibiotic use in poultry 11.2.1.2.2 Antibiotic use in dairy operations 11.2.1.3 Aquaculture 11.2.2 Antibiotic resistance during wastewater reuse and soil application 11.2.3 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in bacteria 11.2.3.1 Antibiotic destruction 11.2.3.2 Antibiotic modification 11.2.3.3 Modification of antibiotic activating enzymes 11.2.3.4 Target replacement 11.2.3.5 Target site alteration 11.2.3.6 Target site protection 11.2.3.7 Target overproduction 11.2.3.8 Efflux pumps 11.3 Human health impacts of antibiotics in agriculture 11.3.1 Linking antibiotic-resistant bacteria to human health 11.3.1.1 Wastewater, irrigation, and soil 11.3.1.2 Horizontal gene transfer 11.3.2 Addressing risk factors 11.3.3 The impact of banning antibiotic use in agriculture 11.4 Alternative strategies to limit antibiotic-resistant bacteria in agriculture microbiology 11.4.1 Developing comprehensive surveillance to better understand antibiotic-resistant bacteria 11.4.2 Detection and analysis 11.4.3 Regulation and policies 11.4.4 Development of novel antibiotics 11.5 Outlook and future directions References 12 Recent advances in the degradation and deactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes duri... 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Wastewater treatment plants—hot-spots of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant gene 12.3 Antibiotic-resistant gene removal in wastewater treatment plants 12.3.1 The primary wastewater treatment technologies 12.3.2 The secondary wastewater treatment technologies 12.3.3 The natural treatment systems 12.3.4 Tertiary wastewater treatment technologies 12.3.4.1 Adsorption/filtration processes 12.3.4.2 Disinfection 12.4 Advanced oxidation processes 12.4.1 Fenton and Fenton-like processes 12.4.2 Ultraviolet-hydrogen peroxide 12.4.3 Ultrasonic oxidation/cavitation 12.4.4 Ozonation 12.4.5 Photocatalysis 12.4.6 Sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation process 12.5 Challenges in the removal of AMRs and ARGs in WWTPs and future perspectives References 13 Aerobic and anaerobic methods for the degradations of antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-resistant bacteria from ... 13.1 Water and treatment plants 13.2 What are antibiotic-resistant gene and antibiotic-resistant bacteria contaminants? 13.2.1 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes 13.3 Degradation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes 13.4 Anaerobic methods for the degradation of antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-resistant bacteria from waste streams 13.5 Mechanisms for degradation of antibiotics 13.6 Mechanisms for lysis, removal and degradation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes 13.7 Prospective and future research References Further reading 14 Degradation of antibiotics in wastewater using ozonation-based hybrid advanced oxidation processes: economic aspect, deg... 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Occurrence of antibiotics in wastewater treatment plants 14.3 Mechanism of catalytic ozonation 14.3.1 Heterogeouns catalytic ozonation 14.3.2 Metal oxide 14.3.2.1 MnO2-based oxides 14.3.2.2 Al2O3-based oxides 14.3.2.3 Fe-based oxides 14.3.2.4 Other metal oxides 14.3.3 Carbon-based materials 14.4 Photocatalytic ozonation 14.4.1 Mechanism 14.4.2 Degradation of antibiotics by photocatalytic ozonation 14.4.2.1 Irradiation wavelength and light intensity 14.4.2.2 pH 14.4.2.3 Catalytic dosage 14.4.2.4 Ozone concentration 14.4.2.5 Antibiotic concentration 14.5 Economic aspects of photocatalytic ozonation 14.6 Degradation pathway 14.7 Toxicity reduction of antibiotics 14.8 Concluding remarks and future studies References 15 Advanced oxidation processes in the mitigation of antibiotic-resistant genes in effluents 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Effluent treatment 15.2.1 Preliminary treatment 15.2.2 Primary treatment 15.2.3 Secondary treatment 15.2.4 Tertiary treatment 15.3 Antibiotic-resistant genes in effluents 15.4 Advanced oxidation processes 15.4.1 Ozonation 15.4.2 Hydrogen peroxide 15.4.3 Fenton reaction 15.4.4 Photocatalysis 15.5 Supplementary information 15.6 Final consideration and conclusions References 16 Advance oxidation processes for remediation of antibiotics from wastewater 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Treatment technologies for degradation of antibiotics 16.2.1 Advanced oxidation techniques 16.2.1.1 Ozone 16.2.1.2 Photolysis/photocatalysis 16.2.1.3 Photocatalytic fuel cell 16.2.1.4 Fenton oxidation 16.2.1.5 Electrochemical oxidation process 16.2.2 Adsorption 16.2.3 Membrane techniques 16.3 Conclusion References 17 Photocatalytic degradations of antibiotics using graphene-based nanocomposites 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Morphologies of graphene-based materials 17.3 Functionalization of graphene-based nanocomposites 17.4 Graphene-based material characterization 17.5 The catalytic activity of graphene-based materials 17.6 Statistical analysis 17.7 Conclusions and outlook References Index Back Cover