سیستم‌های دریایی عمیق: فرآیندها، رسوبات، محیط‌ها، تکتونیک و رسوب‌گذاری، جلد ۱

Deep-water (below wave base) processes, although generally hidden from view, shape the sedimentary record of more than 65% of the Earth's surface, including large parts of ancient mountain belts. This book aims to inform advanced-level undergraduate and postgraduate students, and professional Earth scientists with interests in physical oceanography and hydrocarbon exploration and production, about many of the important physical aspects of deep-water (mainly deep-marine) systems. The authors consider transport and deposition in the deep sea, trace-fossil assemblages, and facies stacking patterns as an archive of the underlying controls on deposit architecture (e.g., seismicity, climate change, autocyclicity). Topics include modern and ancient deep-water sedimentary environments, tectonic settings, and how basinal and extra-basinal processes generate the typical characteristics of basin slopes, submarine canyons, contourite mounds and drifts, submarine fans, basin floors and abyssal plains. Preface xi About the companion website xiii Part 1 Process and product 1 1 Physical and biological processes 3 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Shelf-edge processes 5 1.2.1 High-level escape of mud from the shelf 5 1.2.2 Currents in submarine canyons 7 1.2.3 Internal waves 9 1.2.4 Sediment slides and mass transport complexes (MTCs) 10 1.3 Deep, thermohaline, clear-water currents 12 1.4 Density currents and sediment gravity flows 16 1.4.1 Classification 17 1.4.2 Transformations between flow types 21 1.5 Turbidity currents and turbidites 23 1.5.1 Definition and equations of flow 23 1.5.2 Natural variations and triggering processes 27 1.5.3 Supercritical flow of turbidity currents 32 1.5.4 Autosuspension in turbidity currents 33 1.5.5 Effects of obstacles in the flow path 33 1.5.6 Turbidites 34 1.5.7 Cross-stratification in turbidites 36 1.5.8 Antidunes in turbidites 37 1.5.9 Turbidites from low-concentration flows 38 1.5.10 Downcurrent grain size–bed thickness trends in turbidites 40 1.5.11 Time scales for turbidite deposition 40 1.6 Concentrated density flows and their deposits 42 1.6.1 Deposits from concentrated density flows 42 1.6.2 Large mud clasts in concentrated density-flow deposits 44 1.7 Inflated sandflows and their deposits 45 1.7.1 Deposits of inflated sandflows 45 1.8 Cohesive flows and their deposits 46 1.8.1 Definitions and equations of flow 46 1.8.2 Turbulence of cohesive flows 48 1.8.3 Competence of cohesive flows 49 1.8.4 Deposits of cohesive flows, including debrites 49 1.8.5 Submarine versus subaerial cohesive flows 52 1.9 Accumulation of biogenic skeletons and organic matter 52 1.9.1 Environmental information from biogenic skeletons 55 2 Sediments (facies) 59 2.1 Introduction 60 2.2 Facies classifications 60 2.2.1 Seismic facies 62 2.2.2 The Pickering et al. classification scheme 62 2.3 Facies Class A: Gravels, muddy gravels, gravelly muds, pebbly sands, ≥5% gravel grade 65 2.3.1 Facies Group A1: Disorganised gravels, muddy gravels, gravelly muds and pebbly sands 66 2.3.2 Facies Group A2: Organised gravels and pebbly sands 69 2.4 Facies Class B: Sands, >80% sand grade,