Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene (The Anthropocene: Politik―Economics―Society―Science, 30)

In this book 25 authors from the Global South (19) and the Global North (6) address conflicts, security, peace, gender, environment and development. Four parts cover I) peace research epistemology; II) conflicts, families and vulnerable people; III) peacekeeping, peacebuilding and transitional justice; and IV) peace and education. Part I deals with peace ecology, transformative peace, peaceful societies, Gandhi’s non-violent policy and disobedient peace. Part II discusses urban climate change, climate rituals, conflicts in Kenya, the sexual abuse of girls, farmer-herder conflicts in Nigeria, wartime sexual violence facing refugees, the traditional conflict and peacemakingprocess of Kurdish tribes, Hindustani family shame, and communication with Roma. Part III analyses norms of peacekeeping, violent non-state actors in Brazil, the art of peace in Mexico, grass-roots post-conflict peacebuilding in Sulawesi, hydrodiplomacyin the Indus River Basin, the Rohingya refugee crisis, and transitional justice. Part IV assesses SDGs and peace in India, peace education in Nepal, and infrastructure-based development and peace in West Papua. • Peer-reviewed texts prepared for the 27th Conference of the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) in 2018 in Ahmedabad in India.• Contributions from two pioneers of global peace research:a foreword by Johan Galtung from Norway and a preface by Betty Reardon from the United States.• Innovative case studies by peace researchers on decolonising conflicts, security, peace, gender, environment and development in the Anthropocene, the new epoch of earth and human history.• New theoretical perspectives by senior and junior scholars from Europe and Latin America on peace ecology, transformative peace, peaceful societies, and Gandhi’s non-violence policy.• Case studies on climate change, SDGs and peace in India; conflicts in Kenya, Nigeria, South Sudan, Turkey, Braziland Mexico; Roma in Hungary;the refugee crisis in Bangladesh; peace action in Indonesia and India/Pakistan; and peace education in Nepal. Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Contents Abbreviations 1 Decolonising Peace in the Anthropocene: Introduction Towards an Alternative Understanding of Peace and Security 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Gandhi’s Socio-Political Imaginary for Decolonisation 1.1.2 Occidental Peace as a Measure of Colonial Interests 1.1.3 Anthropocene and Globalisation: Start and Impacts 1.1.4 Patriarchy, Colonialism and Neoliberal Postcolonialism 1.1.5 Decolonising Science, Thinking and New Social Representations 1.1.6 Research Questions 1.1.7 Structure and Organisation of This Chapter 1.2 Why Decolonising Peace? 1.2.1 Internal Colonialism 1.2.2 The Realist Approach to Peace 1.2.3 The Liberal Approach to Peace 1.2.4 Natural Resources and Ecological Peace 1.2.5 Cultural Diversity of Peace 1.2.6 Engendered Diverse Peace: A Cosmopolitical Approach to Peace 1.3 The Anthropocene May Pose Severe Survival Threats 1.3.1 Proxy Wars and Resource Depletion: Conflicts on the Nexus of Water, Soil, Food and Energy 1.3.2 Militarised Borders, Refugees and Migrants 1.4 From an Unipolar World Towards Diverse Decolonised Systems 1.4.1 The Global South is Left Alone, Indebted and Poor 1.5 Content of the Book 1.5.1 Peace Ecology in the Anthropocene 1.5.2 Transformative and Participative Peace: A Theoretical and Methodological Proposal of an Epistemology for Peace and Conflict Studies 1.5.3 Peaceful Societies Through Social Cohesion? the Power of Paradigms for Normative and Interdisciplinary Research 1.5.4 The National and Universal Importance of the Non-violent Policy of Mohandas K. Gandhi 1.5.5 Disobedient Peace: Non-cooperation with Inhuman Orders 1.5.6 Risks, Mitigation and Adaptation to Urban Climate Change Impacts in the Global South from a Gender Perspective 1.5.7 Conflicts in Kenya: Drivers of Conflicts and Assessing Mitigation Measures 1.5.8 Human Rights and Sexual Abuse of the Girl-Child in Nigeria: Implications for Development 1.5.9 The Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Nigeria’s Open Space: Taming the Tide 1.5.10 Climate Rituals: Cultural Response for Climate Change Adaptations in Africa 1.5.11 Ethnically-Charged Wartime Sexual Violence: The Agony of the South Sudanese Refugees in Uganda 1.5.12 Traditional Conflict and Peacemaking Processes: The Case of Kurdish Tribes in Mardin, Turkey 1.5.13 Family Shame and Eloping Couples: A Hindustani Warp in Time – Steps in Progress Towards Non-violence 1.5.14 We Are not Victims: The Roma, an Outdoor Art Gallery and the Same Old Story – Critical Thinking in Communication for Development 1.5.15 A Discourse on the Norms and Ideologies of Peacekeeping 1.5.16 Governance by Violent Non-state Actors as a Challenge to Sustainable Peace in Brazil 1.6 Art of Peace: Cultural Practices and Peacebuilding in Mexico 1.6.1 Grass-Roots Post-Conflict Peacebuilding: A Case Study of Mosintuwu Women’s School in the Poso District in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 1.6.2 Hydro-Diplomacy Towards Peace Ecology: The Case of the Indus Water Treaty Between India and Pakistan 1.6.3 Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Implications for Regional Security 1.6.4 An Unsustainable Price: The Opportunity Costs of Transitional Justice 1.6.5 Simultaneous Intervention Strategies at Local Ecosystems for Sustainable Development Goals and Peace: Design and Systems Perspectives 1.6.6 Citizen-Led Assessment and the Participatory Approach to Peace Education in Nepal 1.6.7 Can Infrastructure-Based Development Bring Peace to West Papua? References Part IPeace Research Epistemology for the Anthropocene 2 Peace Ecology in the Anthropocene 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Research Questions 2.1.2 Theoretical Framework and Research Methods 2.1.3 Structure of the Chapter 2.2 “We Are Now in the Anthropocene” 2.2.1 The Industrial Revolution as the Start of the Anthropocene? 2.2.2 The Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution as the Start of the ‘Thin’ Anthropocene 2.2.3 The Impacts of the Columbian Exchange (1492–1600) and the Copernican Revolution 2.2.4 Almogordo: The Nuclear Age with Its Nuclear Fallout as a Major Marker of the Transition from the Holocene to the Anthropocene 2.2.5 The Great Acceleration (1950) 2.2.6 Decision-Making on the Anthropocene Within the Community and Institutions of the Global Organisations of Geologists 2.3 Conceptual Mapping of the Anthropocene Concept 2.3.1 The Anthropocene Concept: Similar Earlier Concepts and Proposed Alternative Concepts 2.4 The Anthropocene: A Turning Point, Context and Challenge for Science and Politics 2.4.1 The Anthropocene as a Turning Point in Earth and Human History 2.4.2 The End of World War II, the Anthropocene and the Nuclear Era as a Context in Earth and Human History 2.4.3 The Anthropocene as a Challenge for Present and Future Scientific Research and for Societal, Economic and Political Action 2.5 Rethinking Peace and Peace Research in the Anthropocene 2.5.1 The Evolution of the ‘Peace Concept’ Through History in Different Cultures, Religions, and Scientific Disciplines in the Social Sciences and Humanities 2.5.2 Evolution of Peace Research Since 1919–2020 2.5.3 Rethinking Peace During the Cold War (1945–1990), in the Post-Cold War Era and in the Anthropocene 2.5.4 Three International Peace Research Organisations: IPRA, PSS(I), and ISA-PEACE 2.5.5 Reconceptualising Peace in the Post-Cold War Era (1990–2020) and the Anthropocene (Since 2000) 2.6 Evolution and Rethinking Ecology Concepts and Approaches in the Anthropocene 2.6.1 Widening Ecology 2.6.2 Human Ecology 2.6.3 Political Ecology 2.6.4 Social Ecology 2.6.5 Ecofeminism 2.6.6 From Landscape Ecology to ‘Geoecology’ 2.6.7 Political Geoecology 2.7 Bridge-Building Between Peace Research and Ecology 2.7.1 From the Bouldings to the Brundtland Report: Addressing Linkages Between Peace, Security and the Environment 2.7.2 Arthur Westing: A Pioneer in the Study of Environmental Impacts of Conflicts and Wars and UNEP’s Case Studies 2.7.3 The Conceptual Debate on Environmental and Ecological Security: Scientific Discourse and Policy Debate 2.7.4 Impact of Environmental Scarcity, Degradation and Stress on Environmental Conflict: Bächler and Homer-Dixon 2.7.5 Environmental Peacemaking and Post-conflict Peacebuilding 2.7.6 Scientific Discourse and Policy Debate on Climate Change, Security and Conflicts 2.7.7 Research on Sustainability Transition and Sustainable Peace in the Anthropocene 2.7.8 Early Approaches to Peace Ecology and Their Shortcomings 2.8 Peace Ecology: A Holistic, Enlightening and Critical Scientific Programme for the Anthropocene 2.8.1 Environmental Security and Peace Studies in the Anthropocene: Fragmentation of Scientific and Political Knowledge 2.8.2 Peace Ecology in the Anthropocene: The Need for Holistic Perspectives and Transformative Approaches 2.8.3 From Knowledge to Action: Addressing the Challenges for Peace and Sustainable Development in the Anthropocene 2.9 Towards an Ecological Peace Policy in the Anthropocene 2.9.1 The Anthropocene: Its Genesis (1940–2020) and Policies of Dealing with Projected Strategic Alternatives (2020–2100) 2.9.2 Addressing the Challenges Posed in the Anthropocene 2.9.3 Strategies for Coping with the Anthropocene Challenges 2.9.4 Outlook for a Peace Ecology Research Programme and an Ecological Peace Policy in the Anthropocene References 3 Transformative and Participative Peace: A Theoretical and Methodological Proposal of Epistemology for Peace and Conflict Studies 3.1 From Negative Peace to Transformative and Participatory Peace 3.1.1 Conceiving Peace from the Socio-Praxic Perspective: Transformative Peace 3.1.2 Methodological Implications of Transformative Peace in the Discipline of Peace and Conflict Studies 3.2 A Participatory Peacebuilding Method 3.2.1 An Abductive Method and a Dialogical Strategy 3.2.2 Purpose, Scope and Methodological Structure of the Peaceful Coexistence Participatory Construction Process 3.3 Conclusions References 4 Peaceful Societies Through Social Cohesion? The Power of Paradigms for Normative and Interdisciplinary Research 4.1 Social Cohesion as a Synonym for Positive Peace? 4.2 Social Cohesion: Origins, Intentions, and Critique 4.2.1 Origins and Intentions 4.2.2 Critique: Exclusive Directions and Outcomes of Social Cohesion Policies 4.2.3 The Demise of Social Cohesion? 4.3 Paradigmatic Foundations and the Role of Research(ers) 4.3.1 Paradigms of Social Cohesion 4.3.2 Peace Paradigm(s) 4.3.3 The Transformative Paradigm 4.3.4 The Narrative Paradigm 4.4 Summary and Conclusions References 5 The National and Universal Importance of the Non-violent Policy of Mohandas K. Gandhi 5.1 The International Mystification of Mohandas K. Gandhi the Politician 5.2 The Theory of the Singularity of the Success of Non-violent Policy in the Indian National Movement 5.3 Discussion Surrounding the Combat Methods of the Indian Movement to Reform British Colonial Rule in South Africa 5.4 Gandhi’s Role in the Indian National Independence Movement 5.5 Turning Points at Which the Non-violent Movement for an Independent India Failed 5.6 The Favourable Historical Constellation for Gandhi’s Partial Political Successes 5.7 The Global Inspiration for Non-violent Political Movements Arising from the Intellectual Stimuli and Successes of Mohandas K. Gandhi 5.8 Gandhi’s Concept of Religion and Politics and Fundamental Objections to It 5.9 Gandhi’s Strong Impact on Civil Rights and Freedom Movements and His Low Degree of Influence on International Politics 5.10 Contentious Basic Assumptions with Regard to Gandhi’s Political Understanding 5.11 The Limited but not Fully Exploited Scope for Action of Non-violent Policies, Now and in the Near Future 5.12 Unavoidable Setbacks of Non-violent Policies References 6 Disobedient Peace: Non-cooperation with Inhuman Orders 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Epistemology of Disobedient Peace 6.2.1 Start from a ‘Reality Principle’ 6.2.2 ‘Becoming Aware’ of Concepts and Processes 6.3 From ‘Social Infantilism’ to ‘Co-operation’ 6.4 Due Disobedience to Inhuman Orders 6.4.1 Indignation in the Face of What is Inhuman 6.4.2 The Order and the Duty to Obey It 6.4.3 The Difficult Mission of Disobeying 6.5 Disobedient Peace in Action 6.6 Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience in Mexico Today References Part IIConflicts, Peace, Gender, Families and Vulnerable People 7 Risks, Mitigation and Adaptation to Urban Climate Change Impacts in the Global South from a Gender Perspective 7.1 Introduction and Research Questions 7.1.1 Research Questions 7.1.2 Organisation of the Chapter 7.2 Introduction to the Talanoa Approach 7.3 Global GHG Emissions (GT CO2e/year) 7.4 Cities, Population, Women, Youth and GHG Emissions 7.4.1 Population and Youth Will Be Urban 7.4.2 Women in Marginal Urban Areas in Developing Countries 7.5 Cities Concentrate Most of the GHG Emissions 7.5.1 Cities Require Local Climate Change Management 7.5.2 How to Finance Liveable Cities 7.6 The Talanoa Dialogue 7.6.1 Why Talanoa? 7.7 Climate Governance and Conflict Resolution 7.7.1 Multi-level Climate Change Governance 7.7.2 Multi-level Climate Change Actions Involved in Talanoa 7.7.3 How to Promote Liveable Cities with a Gender Perspective 7.8 Conclusions 7.8.1 The Talanoa Approach is a Multisectorial Approach Without a Gender Perspective 7.8.2 Granting Gender Equality and Life Quality for Children and Everybody References 8 Conflicts in Kenya: Drivers of Conflicts and Assessing Mitigation Measures 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Nature of Conflicts 8.3 Drivers of Conflict in Kenya 8.3.1 Natural Resources 8.3.2 Land and Development Projects 8.3.3 Political Activities 8.3.4 The Bulging Unemployed Youth 8.3.5 Community and Cultural Rivalry 8.3.6 Proliferation of Small Arms 8.3.7 Proximity to Training Grounds in Yemen and Somalia 8.3.8 Corruption and Impunity 8.3.9 Discrimination and Marginalisation 8.4 Attempts and Measures to Solve Conflicts 8.5 Conclusion and Recommendation References 9 Human Rights and Sexual Abuse of the Girl-Child in Nigeria: Implications for Development 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Theoretical and Conceptual Clarification of Sexual Abuse and the Human Rights of Children 9.3 Theoretical Clarification 9.4 The Nature and Scope of the Sexual Abuse of the Girl-Child in Nigeria 9.4.1 The Spread 9.4.2 The Perpetrators 9.4.3 The Culture of Silence 9.4.4 Abusers’ Strategies 9.4.5 Coercion 9.5 Causes of Sexual Abuse of the Girl-Child in Nigeria 9.5.1 Environmental Factors 9.5.2 Indecent Dressing 9.5.3 Poverty 9.5.4 Superstitious Beliefs 9.5.5 Ignorance and Lack of Sex Education 9.5.6 Failure to Bring Perpetrators to Book and the Challenge of the Justice System in Nigeria 9.5.7 Consequences of the Sexual Abuse of a Girl-Child in Nigeria 9.6 Conclusion 9.6.1 Recommendations References 10 The Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Nigeria’s Open Space: Taming the Tide 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Evolution of Pastoral Nomadism 10.3 The Fulbe Transhumance and Livelihood Transformation in Nigeria 10.4 Drivers of the Farmer-Herder Conflicts 10.5 Solutions and Way Forward 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Climate Rituals: Cultural Response for Climate Change Adaptations in Africa 11.1 Climate and the Climate Change System 11.1.1 Threat of Climate Change to Africa’s Growth and Development 11.2 The Cultural Ecology of Climate 11.2.1 Culture for Adaptation 11.2.2 Research Objectives 11.2.3 Research Design 11.3 Climate Rituals in Africa 11.3.1 Rainmaking Rituals in East Africa 11.3.2 Rainmaking Rituals in the Sahel of North Africa 11.3.3 Rainmaking Rituals in West Africa 11.3.4 Rainmaking Rituals in Central and Southern Africa 11.3.5 African Anthropological Wisdom and Thought Processes on Rainmaking Rituals 11.3.6 Rainmaking Rituals in Perspective References 12 Ethnically-Charged Wartime Sexual Violence: The Agony of the South Sudanese Refugees in Uganda 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background to the Civil Conflict 12.2.1 Ethnic Divisions Within the SPLM 12.2.2 Ethnic Division Between the Dinka and the Nuer 12.2.3 The Bor Massacre and Its Implications for the Civil War 12.3 Strategic Rape Theory 12.4 Wartime Sexual Violence 12.5 Rape as a Weapon of War 12.6 Narratives of South Sudanese Refugees 12.7 Conclusion and Recommendations References 13 Traditional Conflict and Peacemaking Processes: The Case of Kurdish Tribes in Mardin, Turkey 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Traditional and Indigenous Peacemaking and Conflict Resolution 13.2 Traditional Conflict, the Peacemaking Process and Mediation in Kurdish Tribes 13.2.1 From Xwin (Blood Feud) as a Tribal Conflict to Béj (Blood Money) as a Peacemaking Process 13.2.2 Nané Aşitiyé as a Ritualistic Peacebuilding Approach 13.2.3 Mediators in the Kurdish Tribal System 13.3 Conclusion References 14 Family Shame and Eloping Couples: A Hindustani Warp in Time. Steps in Progress Towards Non-violence 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Background 14.2 The Study’s Aims and Objective 14.3 Research Methodology 14.4 Media Reports: India 14.4.1 Traditional, Local, Cultural Context 14.4.2 Federal Legal and Government Context: Progress Towards Non-violence 14.5 Hindustani Love Legends 14.5.1 Heer Ranjha 14.5.2 Mirza Sahiban 14.5.3 Sohni Mahiwal 14.5.4 Sassi Punnun 14.5.5 Anarkali 14.6 Nepal – Gospel in a Nutshell 14.7 Discussion 14.7.1 Challenging Community Values 14.8 Conclusion – A Path of Progress References 15 We Are not Victims: The Roma, An Outdoor Art Gallery and the Same Old Story – Critical Thinking in Communication for Development 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Contextual Background 15.3 Theoretical Background 15.3.1 Field Site 15.3.2 Method 15.3.3 Analysis 15.3.4 Previous Research 15.3.5 Results and Contribution 15.4 Discussion 15.4.1 The Roma Help Project’s Help Narrative 15.4.2 The Roma Villager’s Help Narrative 15.5 Conclusion References Part IIIPeacekeeping, Peacebuilding, Peacemaking and Transitional Justice in the Anthropocene 16 A Discourse on the Norms and Ideologies of Peacekeeping 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Motives and Aims of Peacekeeping 16.2.1 Promoting States’ National Interests 16.2.2 Preserving the International System 16.2.3 Promoting Liberal Norms 16.2.4 Compensating for State Failure and the Responsibility to Protect 16.3 Effectiveness in Peace Operations 16.3.1 Approaches 16.4 Conclusion References 17 Governance by Violent Non-state Actors as a Challenge to Sustainable Peace in Brazil 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Violent Non-state Actors and Governance Capabilities 17.3 Brief Historical Background of Brazilian Criminal Organisations: The PCC and the FDN 17.3.1 The Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC) 17.3.2 The Família do Norte (FDN) 17.4 Prison Actors Governing Outside the Cells: VNSAs Controlling Lives and Territories 17.4.1 Spillover of the PCC’s Governance Structure from Prisons to the Quebradas 17.4.2 Emulating the Enemy: The FDN Governance 17.4.3 A Governance for or Against the Oppressed? 17.5 Conclusions References 18 Art of Peace: Cultural Practices and Peacebuilding in Mexico 18.1 Introduction: Why We Should Stop Talking About Violence? 18.1.1 The Context of Violence in Mexico 18.2 Researching Peacebuilding: A Methodological Approach 18.3 Cultural Interventions and Peacebuilding 18.4 Case Studies of Arts and Non-Violence in Mexico 18.4.1 First Case: Anita Cuellar – Symbolic Actions as a Way to Face Loss and Be Resilient 18.4.2 Second Case: Transforming the Border Wall Through Art 18.4.3 Third Case: Rap Artists and Cultural Managers Using Hip-Hop 18.4.4 Fourth Case: Performance Against Gender Violence in the Centre of Mexico 18.5 Conclusions References 19 Grass-Roots Post-conflict Peacebuilding: A Case Study of Mosintuwu Women’s School in Poso District, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Methods 19.3 Poso District: A Brief Context 19.4 Theoretical Framework 19.4.1 Grass-Roots Post-conflict Peacebuilding 19.4.2 Women in Peacebuilding 19.4.3 Peace Education 19.5 About Mosintuwu Women’s School, Poso 19.6 Findings 19.6.1 Women’s School and Post-conflict Peacebuilding 19.6.2 Women and Transformative Peace Education 19.6.3 Women’s Participation in Post-conflict Peacebuilding 19.7 Conclusion References 20 Hydro-diplomacy Towards Peace Ecology: The Case of the Indus Water Treaty Between India and Pakistan 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Conceptual Framework 20.3 Historical Background 20.4 The Indus River Basin 20.5 The Indus Water Treaty of 1960 20.6 Institutional Agreement for a Peace Ecology 20.7 Institutional Arrangements to Address Climate Change 20.8 Challenges of the Treaty 20.9 Opportunity for Hydro-Diplomacy 20.10 Discussion References 21 The Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Implications for Regional Security 21.1 The Nature of the Inquiry 21.2 Conceptualising and Defining Refugees and Stateless People 21.3 Institutionalised Discrimination and Statelessness: The Rohingya People 21.4 The Refugee Crisis from a Security Perspective 21.5 The Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Three Perspectives 21.5.1 Local Livelihood 21.5.2 Political Competition 21.5.3 Future Risks of Radicalisation 21.5.4 Security Issues Inside and Outside the Camps 21.5.5 Security Concerns in the Region 21.6 Conclusion References 22 An Unsustainable Price: The Opportunity Costs of Transitional Justice 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Theories of Transitional Justice 22.3 Assuming that the New Government is Sincere 22.4 Rwandan Insincerity: Using Transitional Justice to Build Control of the State 22.5 Victims, Perpetrators and Witnesses 22.6 Double Jeopardy 22.7 South Africa Is Not a Useful Precedent 22.8 The Solomon Islands’ Experience: Timing Really Matters 22.9 Côte D’Ivoire: Can Youth Lead the Way? 22.10 Re-igniting the Flames 22.11 When the Enemy Has Left the Country: Timor Leste 22.12 Gender 22.13 Conclusion References Part IVPeace, Development and Education 23 Simultaneous Intervention Strategies at Local Ecosystems for Sustainable Development Goals and Peace: Design and Systems Perspectives 23.1 Issues and Challenges of Sustainability 23.2 Key Dimensions and Factors for Sustainability: A Linear Analysis 23.3 Interconnected and Embedded Nature of Factors Across Dimensions: A Dynamic Analysis 23.3.1 The Interconnected Nature of Factors Within Dimensions 23.3.2 The Interconnectedness of Factors Across the Dimensions 23.3.3 The Embedded Nature of Dimensions 23.4 Simultaneous Interventions on All Six Dimensions and Potential Outcomes of SDGs 23.4.1 Potential Outcomes of SDGs 23.5 Principles of Simultaneous Interventions at Local Ecosystems for SDGs and Peace References 24 Citizen-Led Assessment and the Participatory Approach to Peace Education in Nepal 24.1 Context 24.2 Methodology 24.3 Citizen-Led Assessment for Participatory Education Governance 24.4 Non-violent Communication for a Culture of Peace in Schools 24.5 A Participatory Peace Education Approach as Part of Education Governance 24.6 Conclusion References 25 Can Infrastructure-Based Development Bring Peace to West Papua? 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Methods 25.3 Findings 25.3.1 The History of the West Papuan Conflict 25.3.2 Economic and Socio-cultural Impacts of the Trans-Papua Highway on Papuan Indigenous Peoples 25.4 Security and Peace Issues 25.5 Conclusions References About the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) IPRA Conferences, Secretary Generals and Presidents 1964–2018 About the Editors About the Contributors Index In this book 25 authors from the Global South (19) and the Global North (6) address conflicts, security, peace, gender, environment and development. Four parts cover I) peace research epistemology; II) conflicts, families and vulnerable people; III) peacekeeping, peacebuilding and transitional justice; and IV) peace and education. Part I deals with peace ecology, transformative peace, peaceful societies, Gandhis non-violent policy and disobedient peace. Part II discusses urban climate change, climate rituals, conflicts in Kenya, the sexual abuse of girls, farmer-herder conflicts in Nigeria, wartime sexual violence facing refugees, the traditional conflict and peacemakingprocess of Kurdish tribes, Hindustani family shame, and communication with Roma. Part III analyses norms of peacekeeping, violent non-state actors in Brazil, the art of peace in Mexico, grass-roots post-conflict peacebuilding in Sulawesi, hydrodiplomacyin the Indus River Basin, the Rohingya refugee crisis, and transitional justice. Part IV assesses SDGs and peace in India, peace education in Nepal, and infrastructure-based development and peace in West Papua. Peer-reviewed texts prepared for the 27th Conference of the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) in 2018 in Ahmedabad in India. Contributions from two pioneers of global peace research:a foreword by Johan Galtung from Norway and a preface by Betty Reardon from the United States. Innovative case studies by peace researchers on decolonising conflicts, security, peace, gender, environment and development in the Anthropocene, the new epoch of earth and human history. New theoretical perspectives by senior and junior scholars from Europe and Latin America on peace ecology, transformative peace, peaceful societies, and Gandhis non-violence policy. Case studies on climate change, SDGs and peace in India; conflicts in Kenya, Nigeria, South Sudan, Turkey, Brazil and Mexico; Roma in Hungary;the refugee crisis in Bangladesh; peace action in Indonesia and India/Pakistan; and peace education in Nepal