Cybercrime in Context: The human factor in victimization, offending, and policing (Crime and Justice in Digital Society, I)

This book is about the human factor in cybercrime: its offenders, victims and parties involved in tackling cybercrime. It takes a diverse international perspective of the response to and prevention of cybercrime by seeking to understand not just the technological, but the human decision-making involved. This edited volume represents the state of the art of research on the human factor in cybercrime, addressing its victims, offenders, and policing. It originated at the Second annual Conference on the Human Factor in Cybercrime, held in The Netherlands in October 2019, bringing together empirical research from a variety of disciplines, and theoretical and methodological approaches. This volume will be of particular interest to researchers and students in cybercrime and the psychology of cybercrime, as well as policy makers and law enforcement interested in prevention and detection. -- Back cover Contents Introduction The Annual Conference on the Human Factor in Cybercrime: An Analysis of Participation in the 2018 and 2019 Meetings Introduction The Annual Conference on the Human Factor in Cybercrime The Present Study Data Analytic Strategy Results Discussion Conclusions References Part II: Victims The Online Behaviour and Victimization Study: The Development of an Experimental Research Instrument for Measuring and Explaining Online Behaviour and Cybercrime Victimization Introduction Online Behaviour and Cybercrime Victimization Unsafe Online Behaviour as a Predictor of Online Victimization Explaining Online Behaviour Motivation Knowledge/Awareness Opportunity Other Factors Measuring Online Behaviour Research into Self-Reported Behaviour Research into Actual Online Behaviour Self-Reported Behaviour Versus Actual Behaviour Online Behaviour and Victimization Study Outline of the Research Instrument Measuring Seven Clusters of Online Behaviour Detailed Description of the Measurements of Actual Online Behaviour Experiments Discussion Appendix: Survey Items Self-Reported Online Behaviour References No Gambles with Information Security: The Victim Psychology of a Ransomware Attack Ransomware as Data Loss Neural and Behavioural Responses to Loss Feedback Individual Differences in Loss Response Personality Risk Factors and Ransomware Response Strategies for Groups Loss-Threatening Incentives and Minimal Loss The Generalizability of Gambling-Task Experiments to Ransomware Future Directions and Conclusion References Shifting the Blame? Investigation of User Compliance with Digital Payment Regulations Current Study Methods Participant Recruitment Participants Materials Results Experience with Online Banking Awareness of Security Guidelines (RQ1) Compliance with Security Guidelines (RQ2) The Effect of Awareness on Compliance with Security Guidelines (RQ3) Discussion Limitations and Future Research Conclusion References Protect Against Unintentional Insider Threats: The Risk of an Employee’s Cyber Misconduct on a Social Media Site Introduction Insider Threat: A Background Research Problem and Current Investigative Approach Method and Data Phase 1: Threat Vector Phase 2: Human Factor Phase 3: Insider Threat Prevention Discussion Conclusion and Further Work References Assessing the Detrimental Impact of Cyber-Victimization on Self-Perceived Community Safety Introduction Background Defining End-User Cyber-Victimization Digital Victimization, Localized Victimization, and Self-Perceived Community Safety Systemic Desensitization Method Data Independent Variables Dependent Variable Hypotheses Results Descriptives Independent Samples T-Test Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Results Discussion Interpretation Limitations Conclusion and Implications References Show Me the Money! Identity Fraud Losses, Capacity to Act, and Victims’ Efforts for Reimbursement Contacting Agencies and Reimbursement Data Incident Characteristics Victim Characteristics Analysis Results Conclusion References Victims of Cybercrime: Understanding the Impact Through Accounts Introduction Hacking Offences Computer Virus Offences Methods The Impact of Computer Misuse Crime in Context A Continuum of Impact Incident of Minor Inconvenience Gweneth [Individual, Computer Virus] Jackie [Individual, Hacking] Vanessa [Individual, Computer Virus] Crime of Inconvenience Joanna [Individual, Hacking] Rachael [Individual, DDoS] Lily [Individual, Computer Virus, Sextortion] Angeline [Individual, Hacking] Justin [SMO, Hacking] Serious Crime of Personal Violation or Significant Financial Loss or Fear of Loss Catherine [Individual, Hacking] Claire [Individual, Hacking] Leo [Individual, Hacking] Sam [Individual, Hacking, Sexploitation] Wayne [Individual, Online Harassment] Patricia [Individual, Multiple] Sophie [Individual, Hacking] Conclusion References The Impact of a Canadian Financial Cybercrime Prevention Campaign on Clients’ Sense of Security Introduction Cybercrime Prevalence Impact of Cybercrime Prevention Campaigns Sense of Security Methods Results Descriptive Analyses Discussion Strengths Limitations and Future Directions Conclusion References Part III: Offenders Saint or Satan? Moral Development and Dark Triad Influences on Cybercriminal Intent Introduction Personality and Cybercriminal Intent Cybercrime Dark Triad Traits Machiavellianism Narcissism Psychopathy Moral Reasoning Data, Instruments, and Methodology Sample Instruments Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Cybercrime Measuring the Dark Triad Measuring Moral Development Methods and Analytical Strategy Results Discussion Discussion of Findings and Implications Limitations Practical Implications and Future Research Directions Conclusion References Cyber-Dependent Crime Versus Traditional Crime: Empirical Evidence for Clusters of Offenses and Related Motives Introduction Cyber-Dependent Crime Motives and Typologies of Cyber-Dependent Offenders Justifications or Neutralizations The Current Study Data and Methods Sample and Procedure Measures Self-Reported Offending Motive Analytical Strategy Results Offending Clusters Motives Intrinsic Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime Financial Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime Extrinsic Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime Comparison of Motives Between Traditional Crimes Comparison of Cyber-Dependent and Traditional Crime Conclusion and Discussion Appendix 1: Pattern Matrix Principal Component Analysis Appendix 2: Evidence for Significant Differences in Motives Between Clusters References Examining Gender-Responsive Risk Factors That Predict Recidivism for People Convicted of Cybercrimes Introduction Prior Research on Women’s Involvement and Risk to Reoffend Women’s Pathways into “Street” Crime Gender-Responsive Risk Factors and Assessment in Corrections The Current Study Methods Data Measures Cybercrime Outcome Variable Independent Variables Control Variables Analysis Plan Findings Describing Women and Men Convicted of Cybercrime Identifying Gender-Responsive Risk Factors for Cybercrime Overall Risk to Reoffend Criminogenic Needs Areas Discussion Conclusion References Exploring Masculinities and Perceptions of Gender in Online Cybercrime Subcultures Introduction Literature Review Hacking Gendering Cybercrime Data and Methods The CrimeBB Dataset Preprocessing Quantitative Methods Data Cleaning NLP Text Pre-processing Frequency Distribution Bigrams and Collocations Topic Modelling Qualitative Methods Results and Findings Data Science Findings Bigrams and Collocations Topic Modelling Qualitative Results Stalking and Gendered Victimisation as a Point of Initiation Gender as a Resource and a Risk in Cybercriminal Practices Gender Norms and Access to ‘Hacker’ Identity Discussion and Concluding Thoughts References Child Sexual Exploitation Communities on the Darkweb: How Organized Are They? Cyber-Facilitated CSE Entrepreneurial and Illegal Governance Structures Associational Structures Methods Sample Case File Analysis Complementary Interviews Results Case File Descriptions Darkweb CSE Fora as Criminal Marketplaces: Organization and Role Differentiation Entrepreneurial Structures Illegal Governance Associational Structures Discussion References Part IV: Policing Infrastructural Power: Dealing with Abuse, Crime, and Control in the Tor Anonymity Network Introduction: Power, Crime, and Control Online Context and Review of the Literature Platforms, Privacy, and Abuse Tor: The Dark Web as a Privacy Infrastructure Internet Infrastructures and Strategies of Control Navigating Crime and Power as a Rebel Infrastructure Theory and Methodology: A Social Worlds Approach to Studying Internet Infrastructure Research Methods Findings Privacy as a Structure: The Engineer World and Standardisation Privacy as a Service: The Infrastructuralist World and Neutralisation Privacy as a Struggle: The Activist World and Reclamation Democratisation: From Disruption to Governmentality Discussion and Concluding Thoughts: Infrastructural Power and its Limits References Cybercrime Reporting Behaviors Among Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises in the Netherlands Introduction Literature Review The Current Study Methods Sample Vignettes Dependent Variables Independent Variables Self-Reported Victimization Results Vignette Study Self-Reported Victimization Discussion Limitations Appendix References Text Mining for Cybercrime in Registrations of the Dutch Police Introduction Previous Research Method Data Selection Data Preparation Classifier Selection Classifier Evaluation Estimating the Number of Police Registrations of Cybercrime Validation Results Classifier Selection Classifier Evaluation Estimation of Number of Registrations of Cybercrime Validation Discussion Conclusion Notes References Law Enforcement and Disruption of Offline and Online Activities: A Review of Contemporary Challenges Introduction Law Enforcement and Cybercrime Policies The Budapest Cybercrime Convention (BCC) Challenges in Policing Cybercrimes Legal Framework(s), Countries’ Sovereignty, and Jurisdictions Context of the Digital World Current State of Policing Expertise and Resources Detection and Reporting Rates Policing Offline and Online: On the Effectiveness of Various Approaches Police Offline Interventions: Current State of Knowledge Hot Spots Policing and Crackdowns Community-Oriented Policing Problem-Oriented Policing What Works in Policing Online Crime? Thoughts on Online Unfocused Policing Online Focused Policing: Previous Attempts and Suggestions for the Future Partnerships Beyond Community Policing Conclusion References Unique Offender, Unique Response? Assessing the Suitability and Effectiveness of Interventions for Cyber Offenders Introduction Research Method Are Cyber Offenders Unique? A Brief Overview Motivational Factors Personal and Contextual Factors Personality and Psychological Factors Online Peer Influence Limited Parental Control Low Risk (Perceptions) of Getting Punished and Limited Awareness of Illegality Limited Awareness of Inflicted Harm What Makes Interventions (Not) Work? Three Perspectives on the Effectiveness of Interventions Deterrence Approach What Works Approach Desistance Approach Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions Directed at Deterrence Assessing the Effectiveness of Risk-Based and Strength-Based Interventions Diagnoses of Needs, Strengths and Responsivity Applying Traditional Interventions on Cyber Offenders Risk-Based Interventions for Cyber Offenders Strength-Based Interventions for Cyber Offenders Combinations of Risk-Based and Strength-Based Interventions Conclusion References Index