Cyber-Development, Cyber-Democracy and Cyber-Defense [recurso electrónico] Challenges, Opportunities and Implications for Theory, Policy and Practice

In this volume, contributors from academia, industry, and policy explore the inter-connections among economic development, socio-political democracy and defense and security in the context of a profound transformation, spurred by globalization and supported by the rapid development of information and communication technologies (ICT). This powerful combination of forces is changing the way we live and redefining the way companies conduct business and national governments pursue strategies of innovation, economic growth and diplomacy. Integrating theoretical frameworks, empirical research and case studies, the editors and contributors have organized the chapters into three major sections, focusing on cyber-development, cyber-democracy and cyber-defense. The authors define __cyber-development__ as a set of tools, methodologies and practices that leverage ICT to catalyze and accelerate social, political and economic development, with an emphasis on making the transition to knowledge-based economies. One underlying understanding here is that knowledge, knowledge creation, knowledge production and knowledge application (innovation) behave as crucial drivers for enhancing democracy, society, and the economy. By promoting dissemination and sharing of knowledge, __cyber-democracy__ allows a knowledge conversion of the local into the global (__gloCal__) and vice versa, resulting in a __gloCal__ platform for communication and knowledge interaction and knowledge enhancement. Meanwhile, technology-enabled interconnectivity increases the need to adopt new methods and actions for protection against existing threats and possible challenges to emerge in the future. The final section contemplates themes of __cyber-defense__ and security, as well as emerging theories and values, legal aspects and trans-continental links (NATO, international organizations and bilateral relations between states). Collectively, the authors present a unique collection of insights and perspectives on the challenges and opportunities inspired by connectivity. Preface 6 Contents 8 About the Editors 10 About the Contributors 12 Part I: Cyber-Development 17 Chapter 1: From Development as Democracy to Innovation as Development 20 1.1 Introduction 21 1.2 Innovation as Development 22 1.2.1 Innovation Posture, Propensity, and Performance 25 1.3 Development as Democracy 27 1.3.1 The Conceptual Framework of Knowledge Economy 27 1.3.1.1 Public Policy 29 1.3.1.2 Public Practice 29 1.3.1.3 Private Policy 30 1.3.1.4 Private Practice 30 1.4 Income Inequality 31 1.4.1 Income Distribution, the Markets, and Firm’s Innovation 31 1.4.2 Preliminary Empirical Validation 32 1.4.3 Hypothesis 1 33 1.4.4 Hypothesis 2 34 1.5 Conclusion 35 References 36 Chapter 2: E-Development and Knowledge Economy: The Role of ICT and SME Incubation 38 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 The Conceptual Framework of Knowledge Economy 39 2.3 State-of-the-Art Survey on Practices for Economic Development in the Knowledge Economy 41 2.3.1 Business Incubators for New Venture Formation in the Knowledge Economy 42 2.3.1.1 Business Incubators 42 2.3.1.2 International Best Practices for Incubators 43 2.3.2 Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to Support and Promote Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the Knowledge Economy 45 2.3.2.1 Overview of ICT 45 2.3.2.2 Overview of SMEs 46 2.3.2.3 ICT and Incubators 47 2.3.3 Overview of Technology Clusters for Business Growth and Economic Development 48 2.3.3.1 Technology Clusters 48 2.3.4 e-Development: Virtual Incubators and Technology Cluster Networks for Business Development in the Knowledge Economy 50 2.3.4.1 Virtual Incubators and Clusters 50 2.3.5 Fundamental Concepts of Innovation and the Role of SMEs for Innovation in the Knowledge Economy 51 2.3.5.1 Concepts of Innovation 51 2.3.5.2 Innovation and SMEs 53 2.3.6 Overview of Innovation Policy for e-Development in the Knowledge Economy 53 2.3.6.1 Innovation Policy 53 2.3.6.2 Leaders in Research Intensity 54 2.3.6.3 Investments in Knowledge 55 2.3.6.4 Global Hubs of Technological Innovation 56 2.3.7 Conceptual Framework of Science and Technology 57 2.3.7.1 Instrumental Methodologies in the Management of Science, Technology, and Innovation for e-Development in the Knowledge Economy 57 Creativity, Innovation, and Competitiveness 57 The Wheel of Innovation, Productivity, and Competitiveness 58 Drivers, Mechanisms, and Outcomes of Innovation 58 Technology Creation, Transfer and Commercialization 58 2.3.8 The Impact of Discontinuous and Disruptive Innovations on e-Development and Knowledge Economy 61 2.3.8.1 Discontinuous and Disruptive Innovations 61 2.3.9 Three Dimensions of Analysis of e-Development in the Knowledge Economy 62 2.3.9.1 Economic Level: Developing Countries, Emerging Economies, Developed Countries 63 2.3.9.2 Organizational Level: For-profit, Nonprofit, Public–Private/International 64 2.3.9.3 Technology Level: Low-Tech, Medium-Tech, High-Tech 66 2.3.10 Real Practices in e-Development and Knowledge Economy: Case Studies 66 2.3.11 Case Studies in the Use of Business Incubators for New Venture Formation 67 2.3.12 Real Practices Case Studies in the Use of ICT to Support and Promote SMEs 77 2.4 Thematic Areas for e-Development and Knowledge Economy Interventions 92 2.4.1 Dimensional Synthesis of Case Studies in e-Development and Knowledge Economy 92 2.4.1.1 Three-Dimensional Summary of Cases 93 2.4.1.2 A Fourth Dimension: Scale 93 2.4.1.3 A Fifth Dimension: Time 95 2.4.1.4 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Economic Level—Similarities 95 2.4.1.5 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Economic Level—Differences 96 2.4.1.6 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Organizational Level—Similarities 97 2.4.1.7 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Organizational Level—Differences 97 2.4.1.8 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Technology Level—Similarities 98 2.4.1.9 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Technology Level—Differences 98 2.4.1.10 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Scale—Similarities 98 2.4.1.11 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Scale—Differences 99 2.4.1.12 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Time—Similarities 99 2.4.1.13 Dimensional Synthesis of Cases: Time—Differences 99 2.4.2 Critical Factors for Success and Failure of e-Development in the Knowledge Economy 100 2.4.2.1 Using Business Incubators for New Venture Formation: Success Factors and Best Practices 100 2.4.2.2 Using Business Incubators for New Venture Formation: Failure Factors 100 2.4.2.3 Using ICT to Support and Promote SMEs: Success Factors and Best Practices 101 2.4.2.4 Using ICT to Support and Promote SMEs: Failure Factors 101 2.4.3 Lessons Learned and Findings for Policy and Practice of e-Development in the Knowledge Economy and the Use of Incubators for Venture Initiation and ICT to Support and Promote SMEs 102 2.4.3.1 Lessons Learned and Findings: Public Policy 102 2.4.3.2 Lessons Learned and Findings: Public Practice 103 2.4.3.3 Lessons Learned and Findings: Private Policy 103 2.4.3.4 Lessons Learned and Findings: Private Practice 104 2.4.4 Recommendations for Policy and Practice of e-Development in the Knowledge Economy and the Use of Incubators for Venture Initiation and ICT to Support and Promote SMEs 104 2.4.4.1 Skills for Knowledge Economy 104 2.4.4.2 Science and Technology 105 2.4.4.3 Innovation Policy 105 Chapter 3: Addressing the Impact of E-Development in the Knowledge Economy and Society: Outputs, Outcomes, and Impacts 106 3.1 Issues and Challenges in Measuring e-Development 108 3.2 Analytical Framework and Indicators 110 3.2.1 e-Procurement 111 3.2.1.1 e-Procurement: Benefits 111 3.2.1.2 e-Procurement: Basic Indicators 112 3.2.2 e-Filing of Taxation 114 3.2.2.1 e-Filing of Taxation: Benefits 114 3.2.2.2 e-Filing of Taxation: Basic Indicators 115 3.2.3 e-Registration 116 3.2.3.1 e-Registration: Benefits 117 3.2.3.2 e-Registration: Basic Indicators 117 3.2.4 Dedicated Virtual Networks: Research and Development 118 3.2.4.1 R&D Networks: Benefits 119 3.2.4.2 R&D Networks: Indicators 119 3.2.5 Virtual Business Incubator (VBI) 121 3.2.5.1 Virtual Business Incubator: Benefits 121 3.2.5.2 Virtual Business Incubator: Indicators 121 3.2.6 e-Marketplace 122 3.2.6.1 e-Marketplace: Benefits 123 3.2.6.2 e-Marketplace: Basic Indicators 124 3.3 Closing Remarks 125 Part II: Cyber-Democracy 127 Chapter 4: Explaining and Comparing Quality of Democracy in Quadruple Helix Structures: The Quality of Democracy in the United States and in Austria, Challenges and Opportunities for Development 131 4.1 Introduction: Research Question for the Analysis and Presentation of the Research Design 132 4.2 Conceptualizing Democracy and the Quality of Democracy: Freedom, Equality, Control, and Sustainable Development (Model of Quadruple Helix Structures) 134 4.3 The Quality of Democracy in the USA and in Austria in a Comparative Perspective with the OECD Countries (EU27): A Comparative Empirical View of the American and Austrian Democracy Relating to the Dimensions of Freedom, Equality, Control, and Sustai 143 4.4 Conclusion: Comparative Assessment and Evaluation of the Quality of Democracy in the USA and in Austria and Measures for Improving the Quality of Democracy of Austria 150 4.5 Epilogue on Cyberdemocracy 154 References 156 Chapter 5: The Effects of Cyberdemocracy on the Middle East: Egypt and Iran 161 5.1 Introduction 162 5.2 The Tools of Cyberdemocracy in the Middle East 163 5.2.1 Demographics and the Digital Divide 163 5.2.2 The Blogosphere 165 5.2.3 The Dawn of Social Media 167 5.2.4 Restrictions on Cyberdemocracy in the Region 169 5.3 Egypt: Case Study for Cyberdemocracy and Underlying Realities of the Arab Spring 171 5.3.1 Egypt Prior to the Revolution 171 5.3.2 The Revolution 173 5.3.3 The “Inaction” of the Military 173 5.3.4 Consequences of the Revolution 174 5.4 Failures in Iran 175 5.4.1 Iran: A Brief Political History of the Twentieth Century 176 5.4.2 The 2009 Election and the Green Revolution 176 5.4.3 The Green Revolution in Contrast to the Arab Spring 177 5.5 Conclusion 180 5.5.1 Some Principal Ideas on Cyberdemocracy, Islam and Democracy 180 5.5.2 Negative Impacts of Cyberdemocracy Post-Arab Spring 181 5.5.3 Geopolitical Realities Post-Arab Spring 182 5.5.4 Cyberdemocracy Post-Arab Spring 184 References 185 Chapter 6: Democratization in the Middle East and North Africa: Tunisia, Egypt, and Turkey 188 6.1 The Process of Democratization in Tunisia and Egypt 188 6.1.1 Introduction 188 6.1.1.1 Theses on the Development of the Arab Spring 189 6.1.2 The “Arab Spring”: A Spring of Democracy? 190 6.1.3 Revolution 191 6.1.3.1 The Success of the Tunisian Revolution 194 6.1.3.2 The Egyptian Revolution 194 6.1.4 A Broad Political Spectrum Becomes Visible 195 6.1.5 Is a Democratic Development Possible? 196 6.1.6 The Arab World Needs More Democracy: A Comparison of Tunisia and Egypt 198 6.1.7 The Importance of Social Media in the Arab World 199 6.1.7.1 The Role of Social Networks in Tunisia 200 6.1.7.2 The Role of Social Networks in Egypt 200 6.1.8 Conclusion 202 6.2 The Process of Democratization of the “New” Turkey 202 6.2.1 Is Turkey a Role Model for the Arabic Reform Countries? 204 6.2.2 Conclusion 205 References 205 Chapter 7: Cyber Democracy: The Future of Democracy? 207 7.1 Introduction 208 7.2 Democracy, Cyberspace and Cyber Democracy: What Does It Mean? 208 7.3 Discussion: What Are the Implications of a Cyber Democracy? 212 7.3.1 Cyber Democracy is Offering Cost-Efficient Information for the People 212 7.3.2 Cyber Democracy Needs Targeted Investments in Innovative Developments of the New Digital Media 212 7.3.3 Cyber Democracy Can Result in Information Overload 213 7.3.4 Cyber Democracy Offers a Strengthening for the Participation 213 7.3.5 Cyber Democracy Can Exclude Citizens from Participation and from Receiving Relevant Information 213 7.3.6 Cyber Democracy Supports Effectiveness and Efficiency for the Administration 214 7.3.7 Cyber Democracy Includes the Risk of Cyber Crime 214 7.3.8 Cyber Attacks Are the New Form of War Against Democracy in a Cyber Democracy 214 7.3.9 Cyber Democracy Needs Appropriate Frame Conditions 215 7.3.10 Cyber Democracy Means Interconnectedness of Politics with the Civil Society 215 7.3.11 Cyber Democracy Means Loss of Freedom and Privacy 215 7.4 Conclusion 216 7.5 Cross-References 217 References 217 Chapter 8: Cyber-Democracy and Cybercrime: Two Sides of the Same Coin 219 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Terminology 221 8.2.1 Bring-Your-Own-Device (BYOD) 221 8.2.2 Cloud Computing 221 8.2.3 Cyber-Democracy 221 8.2.4 Cyberspace 222 8.2.5 Cybersecurity 222 8.2.6 Consumerization of IT (CoIT) 222 8.2.7 Knowledge Worker 222 8.2.8 Organization 222 8.2.9 Private Cloud 223 8.2.10 Public Cloud 223 8.2.11 Risk 223 8.3 Towards Consumerization of IT 223 8.4 Cyber-Democracy vs. Cybersecurity in the Cyberspace 225 8.4.1 The Variables Information and Knowledge in Cyber-Democracy 227 8.4.2 Disruptive Actions and Expressions of Discontent: Democratic action or Security Risk? 228 8.4.3 Implications for Practice: Bring-Your-Own-Device—A Vice or a Virtue? 229 8.4.4 Legal Implications 234 8.5 Conclusion 237 References 238 Chapter 9: “Creating” a Public Sphere in Cyberspace: The Case of the EU 243 9.1 Introduction 243 9.2 Deliberative Democracy and the Cyberspace 245 9.3 The Case of the European Union 247 9.3.1 The Democratic Deficit 248 9.3.2 From Partnership to Participation: The EU’s Normative Turn 250 9.4 Assessing the Potential for Democratic Innovation 251 9.5 Case Studies: Online Consultation and ECI Compared 253 9.5.1 The European Commission’s Online Consultation Tool 254 9.5.1.1 Inclusiveness 255 9.5.1.2 Popular Control 255 9.5.1.3 Transparency 256 9.5.1.4 Considered Judgment 256 9.5.1.5 Efficiency and Transferability 257 9.5.1.6 European Public Sphere 257 9.5.2 The European Citizen Initiative 258 9.5.2.1 Inclusiveness 259 9.5.2.2 Transparency 260 9.5.2.3 Popular Control 260 9.5.2.4 Considered Judgement 261 9.5.2.5 Efficiency 262 9.5.2.6 Transferability 262 9.5.2.7 Way Towards a European Public Sphere and Cyber-Democracy 262 9.5.3 Synthesis 263 9.6 Conclusion 265 References 266 References 130 Part III: Cyber-Defense 268 Chapter 10: Cyberspace as a State’s Element of Power 269 10.1 Introduction 269 10.2 Concepts and Definitions 271 10.3 Actors and Threats in Cyberspace 272 10.4 The Purpose of Cyberwar 275 10.5 Strategy in the Age of Cyberspace 276 10.6 Cyber Warfare: The Conduct of Cyberwar 280 10.7 Cyber Power vs. Military Power 282 10.8 Case Study: The Stuxnet Worm 283 10.9 Conclusion 286 Bibliography 286 Chapter 11: Cybersecurity in Europe: Cooperation and Investment 288 11.1 Introduction 289 11.1.1 European Cybersecurity Policies 290 11.1.1.1 Strategies 290 11.1.2 Other Policies 292 11.1.2.1 Digital Agenda for Europe 292 11.1.2.2 Cybercrime 293 11.1.2.3 Intelligence 294 11.1.2.4 Common Security and Defence Policy 295 11.1.2.5 Institutions 297 11.1.2.6 European Defence Agency 299 11.1.2.7 ENISA 300 11.1.2.8 EUROPOL 302 11.1.2.9 Defence and Security Industry 303 11.1.2.10 Investment in Cybersecurity 305 References 307 Chapter 12: NATO’s Cyber-Defence: A Methodology for Smart Defence 311 12.1 Introduction 312 12.2 NATO’s Smart Defence and the Correlation with Cyber-Defence Policy 314 12.3 How is Smart Defence Associated with Cyber-Defence? “Engaging Through Policy Orientation” 316 12.4 NATO’s Cyber and Security Policies Environment in 2014 317 12.4.1 Trends In An e-Security World 319 12.4.2 NATO’s Concept of Cyber-Defence 320 12.4.3 Cyber-Defence Put into the Test: The Estonian Case of 2007 322 12.4.4 NATO Approaches Issues Relevant to CyberSecurity 323 12.5 Proposals 324 12.6 Concluding Remarks 325 Chapter 13: The Security Culture of a Global and Multileveled Cybersecurity 326 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 On (Cyber) Security 327 13.2.1 Referent Object(s) and Cherished Values 329 13.2.2 Cybersecurity Threat(s) 330 13.2.3 Security Provider(s) and Policies 332 13.3 International Cybersecurity Cooperation and Capabilities 333 13.4 Security Culture and Global Capacity Building 336 13.5 Conclusions 340 Bibliography 341 Chapter 14: The Relevance of Endpoint Security in Enterprise Networks 343 14.1 Introduction 343 14.2 What Is an Endpoint? 344 14.3 General Challenges 344 14.3.1 Not Just AV 344 14.3.2 “No Man Left Behind” 344 14.3.3 Complexity 345 14.3.4 Standardization 346 14.3.5 Configuration Matters 346 14.4 Endpoint Security Architecture 347 14.4.1 Deployment Considerations 347 14.4.1.1 Centralized vs. Decentralized Management 347 14.4.1.2 Organizational Structure 348 14.4.2 Host Resources 348 14.4.2.1 Resource Consumption 348 14.4.2.2 Compatibility 349 14.4.2.3 Application Specific Configurations 349 14.5 Endpoint Security Technologies 350 14.5.1 Management/Analysis Server 350 14.5.2 AntiVirus/AntiSpyware 352 14.5.3 Host Based Firewall 353 14.5.4 Host Based Intrusion Prevention Systems (HIPS) 354 14.5.5 Application Whitelisting 355 14.5.6 Rogue Host Detection 356 14.5.7 Policy Auditing and File Integrity Monitoring 357 14.5.8 Data Loss Prevention (DLP) 357 14.5.9 Device Control 358 14.5.10 Incident Response Agent 358 14.6 Am I Safe Now? 359 Bibliography 359 In This Volume, Contributors From Academia, Industry, And Policy Explore The Inter-connections Among Economic Development, Socio-political Democracy, And Defense And Security In The Context Of A Profound Transformation, Spurred By Globalization And Supported By The Rapid Development Of Information And Communication Technologies (ict). This Powerful Combination Of Forces Is Changing The Way We Live, And Redefining The Way Companies Conduct Business And National Governments Pursue Strategies Of Innovation, Economic Growth, And Diplomacy. Integrating Theoretical Frameworks, Empirical Research, And Case Studies, The Editors And Contributors Have Organized The Chapters Into Three Major Sections, Focusing On Cyber-development, Cyber-democracy, And Cyber-defense.^ The Authors Define Cyber-development As A Set Of Tools, Methodologies, And Practices That Leverage Ict To Catalyze And Accelerate Social, Political, And Economic Development, With An Emphasis On Making The Transition To Knowledge-based Economies. One Underlying Understanding Here Is That Knowledge, Knowledge Creation, Knowledge Production And Knowledge Application (innovation) Behave As Crucial Drivers For Enhancing Democracy, Society, And The Economy. By Promoting Dissemination And Sharing Of Knowledge, Cyber-democracy Allows A Knowledge Conversion Of The Local Into The Global (glocal) And Vice Versa, Resulting In A Glocal Platform For Communication And Knowledge Interaction And Knowledge Enhancement. Meanwhile, Technology-enabled Interconnectivity Increases The Need To Adopt New Methods And Actions For Protection Against Existing Threats And Possible Challenges To Emerge In The Future.^ The Final Section Contemplates Themes Of Cyber-defense And Security, As Well As Emerging Theories And Values, Legal Aspects, And Trans-continental Links (nato, International Organizations, And Bilateral Relations Between States). Collectively, The Authors Present A Unique Collection Of Insights And Perspectives On The Challenges And Opportunities Inspired By Connectivity. From Development As Democracy To Innovation As Development -- E-development And Knowledge Economy: The Role Of Ict And Sme Incubation -- Addressing The Impact Of E-development In The Knowledge Economy And Society: Outputs, Outcomes And Impacts -- Explaining And Comparing Quality Of Democracy In Quadruple Helix Structures -- The Effects Of Cyber Democracy On The Middle East: Egypt And Iran -- Democratization In The Middle East And North Africa: Tunisia, Egypt And Turkey -- Cyber Democracy: The Future Of Democracy? -- Cyber Democracy And Cyber Crime: Two Sides Of The Same Coin -- Creating A Public Sphere In Cyber Space: The Case Of The Eu -- Cyber Power And The State -- Cyber Security In Europe: Cooperation And Investment -- Nato's Cyber Defense As Methodology For Smart Defense -- The Security Culture Of A Global And Multileveled Cyber Security -- The Relevance Of Endpoint Security In Enterprise Networks. Elias G. Carayannis, David F.j. Campbell, Marios Panagiotis Efthymiopoulos, Editors. Includes Bibliographical References. Front Matter....Pages i-xv Front Matter....Pages 1-3 From Development as Democracy to Innovation as Development....Pages 5-22 E-Development and Knowledge Economy: The Role of ICT and SME Incubation....Pages 23-90 Addressing the Impact of E-Development in the Knowledge Economy and Society: Outputs, Outcomes, and Impacts....Pages 91-111 Front Matter....Pages 113-116 Explaining and Comparing Quality of Democracy in Quadruple Helix Structures: The Quality of Democracy in the United States and in Austria, Challenges and Opportunities for Development....Pages 117-146 The Effects of Cyberdemocracy on the Middle East: Egypt and Iran....Pages 147-173 Democratization in the Middle East and North Africa: Tunisia, Egypt, and Turkey....Pages 175-193 Cyber Democracy: The Future of Democracy?....Pages 195-206 Cyber-Democracy and Cybercrime: Two Sides of the Same Coin....Pages 207-230 “Creating” a Public Sphere in Cyberspace: The Case of the EU....Pages 231-255 Front Matter....Pages 257-257 Cyberspace as a State’s Element of Power....Pages 259-277 Cybersecurity in Europe: Cooperation and Investment....Pages 279-301 NATO’s Cyber-Defence: A Methodology for Smart Defence....Pages 303-317 The Security Culture of a Global and Multileveled Cybersecurity....Pages 319-335 The Relevance of Endpoint Security in Enterprise Networks....Pages 337-354