Cursed Bonds: An Alpha's Destiny

Dynamic labs emphasize real-world applications This lab manual offers a variety of activities for an active, applied student experience and increased flexibility for instructors. Every lab includes “What Do You Think?” exercises in which students apply the course concepts to real-world scenarios. New Geotours Google Earth exercises get students exploring and analyzing real-world sites. A new, unique chapter on global change in which students explore how the Earth will evolve during their lifetime has been added to this edition. Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e Title Page Copyright Contents Preface Chapter 1. Setting the Stage for Learning about the Earth 1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 The Scientific Method 1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 1.2.1 The Nature of Matter 1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System 1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System 1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressure in the Earth’s Crust 1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance 1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units 1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics” 1.4 The Challenges of Studying an Entire Planet 1.4.1 The Challenge of Scale 1.4.2 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time 1.5 Rates of Geologic Processes Appendix 1.1: Metric-U.S. Customary Conversion Chart Chapter 2. The Way the Earth Works: Examining Plate Tectonics 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics 2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate Zones 2.3.3 Geographic Distribution of Earthquakes and Active Volcanoes 2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics 2.4.1 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Oceanic Magnetic Anomalies 2.4.2 Direct Measurement of Plate Motion 2.5 Processes at Plate Boundaries Revealed by Earth Features 2.5.1 Seafloor Spreading 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 2.5.3 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness of Subduction 2.5.4 Transform Faults 2.5.5 Hot-Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks 2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins Chapter 3. Minerals 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn’t? 3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals 3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties 3.4.2 Luster 3.4.3 Color 3.4.4 Streak 3.4.5 Hardness 3.4.6 Crystal Habit 3.4.7 Breakage 3.4.8 Specific Gravity 3.4.9 Magnetism 3.4.10 Feel 3.4.11 Taste 3.4.12 Odor 3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid 3.4.14 Tenacity 3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens 3.6 Mineral Classification 3.7 Minerals and the Economy 3.7.1 What Makes Minerals Valuable? 3.7.2 Economic Mineral Deposits Appendix 3.1: Mineral Identification Flowcharts Appendix 3.2: Determinative Tables for Systematic Mineral Identification Appendix 3.3: Common Minerals and Their Properties Chapter 4. Minerals, Rocks, and the Rock Cycle 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks 4.2.1 The Rock Cycle 4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals 4.3.1 Describing Texture 4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures 4.5 Clues about a Rock’s Origin from the Minerals It Contains 4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks 4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks 4.8 The Economic Value of Rocks Chapter 5. Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth History 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories of Igneous Rocks 5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock 5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures 5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures 5.2.4 Fragmental Textures 5.2.5 Grain Shape 5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and Identification 5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major Compositional Groups 5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks 5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas 5.4.1 Where and Why Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 5.4.3 Factors Controlling Magma Composition 5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics 5.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks (Peridotite) 5.5.2 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks (Basalt and Gabbro) 5.5.3 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Igneous Rocks (Andesite and Diorite) 5.5.4 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite and Rhyolite) 5.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 5.6.1 Volcanic Landforms 5.6.2 Living with Volcanoes Chapter 6. Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret Earth History 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution 6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment 6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment Composition 6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity 6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks 6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks 6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures 6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting 6.5.2 Grain Shape 6.5.3 Sediment “Maturity” 6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks 6.6 Sedimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient Environments 6.6.1 Beds and Stratification 6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures 6.7 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life 6.8 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy Chapter 7. Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks 7.1 Introduction 7.2 What Changes during Metamorphism? 7.2.1 Changes in Texture 7.2.2 Changes in Mineralogy 7.2.3 Changes in Composition 7.3 Agents of Metamorphism 7.3.1 The Effect of Heat 7.3.2 The Effect of Pressure 7.3.3 The Effects of Stress 7.3.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids 7.4 Studying Metamorphic Rocks 7.4.1 How to Determine if a Rock Is Metamorphic 7.4.2 Metamorphic Rock Classification and Identification 7.4.3 Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Rocks 7.5 What Can We Learn from a Metamorphic Rock? 7.5.1 Identifying the Protolith 7.5.2 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism and Geologic Setting 7.5.3 Estimating the Grade of Metamorphism Chapter 8. Studying the Earth’s Landforms: Maps and Other Tools 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ways to Portray the Earth’s Surface 8.2.1 Map Projections 8.3 Map Elements 8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location 8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction 8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale 8.4 Vertical Exaggeration: A Matter of Perspective Chapter 9. Working with Topographic Maps 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Contour Lines 9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 9.3 Reading Topographic Maps 9.3.1 Contour Lines and Slope 9.3.2 Contour Lines and Elevation 9.3.3 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the Water Flowing? 9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 9.4 Applications of Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 9.5 Topographic Profiles 9.5.1 Drawing a Topographic Profile 9.5.2 Choosing the Vertical Scale Appendix 9.1: Topographic Map Symbols Chapter 10. Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and Cross Sections 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Beginning with the Basics: Contacts and Attitude 10.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations 10.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers: Strike and Dip 10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 10.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Strata 10.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds 10.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults 10.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities 10.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions 10.4 Geologic Maps 10.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols 10.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections 10.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns 10.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines 10.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes 10.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps Chapter 11. Earthquakes and Seismology 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves 11.3 Locating Earthquakes 11.4 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 11.5 Predicting Earthquake Hazards: Liquefaction 11.6 Tsunami! Appendix 11.1: Seismic Analysis Worksheets Chapter 12. Interpreting Geologic History: What Happened, and When Did It Happen? 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Physical Criteria for Determining Relative Age 12.2.1 The Principles of Original Horizontality and Superposition 12.2.2 The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 12.2.3 The Principle of Inclusions 12.2.4 Sedimentary Structures 12.2.5 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the Geologic Record 12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating 12.3.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession 12.3.2 The Geologic Time Scale 12.3.3 Fossil Age Ranges 12.4 Determining Numerical Ages of Rocks 12.5 Correlation: Fitting Pieces of the Puzzle Together Chapter 13. Landscapes Formed by Streams 13.1 Introduction 13.2 How Do Streams Work? 13.3 Stream Valley Types and Features 13.4 Changes in Streams over Time 13.5 Stream Networks 13.5.1 Drainage Basins 13.5.2 Drainage Patterns 13.6 Changes in Stream-Created Landscapes over Time 13.7 When Streams Don’t Seem to Follow the Rules 13.8 When There’s Too Much Water: Floods 13.9 Streams, Society, and the Environment Chapter 14. Groundwater as a Landscape Former and Resource 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Aquifers and Aquitards 14.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater 14.4 The Water Table 14.5 Groundwater Resources and Problems Chapter 15. Glacial Landscapes 15.1 Introduction 15.2 How Glaciers Do Their Work 15.2.1 Types of Glaciers 15.2.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms 15.3 Landscapes Produced by Continental Glaciation 15.3.1 Erosional Landscapes 15.3.2 Depositional Landscapes 15.4 Landscapes Produced by Mountain Glaciation 15.5 Glaciers and Climate Change Appendix 15.1: Glossary of Glacial Landforms Chapter 16. Processes and Landforms in Arid Environments 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes 16.4 Wind and Sand Dunes 16.5 Desertification Chapter 17. Shoreline Landscapes 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Factors Controlling Shoreline Formation and Evolution 17.2.1 Shoreline Materials 17.2.2 Weather and Climate 17.2.3 Tidal Range 17.2.4 Tectonic Activity 17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines 17.3 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition 17.3.1 How Waves Form 17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Deposition 17.3.3 Longshore Drift 17.3.4 Erosional Features 17.3.5 Depositional Features 17.4 Human Interaction with Shoreline Processes 17.4.1 Seawalls 17.4.2 Beach Nourishment 17.4.3 Jetties 17.4.4 Unintended Consequences of Human Shoreline Management Efforts 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 17.5.1 Sea-Level Change 17.5.2 Coastal Storms 17.5.3 Tsunamis Chapter 18. Looking to the Future: How Will Humans Be Affected by Changes in the Earth System? 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Changes in the Earth System 18.2.1 The Nature of Change: Cyclical versus Unidirectional 18.2.2 Changes in the Geosphere 18.2.3 Changes in the Atmosphere 18.2.4 Changes in the Cryosphere and Hydrosphere 18.2.5 Changes in the Biosphere 18.3 Humans as Agents of Environmental Change and Extinctions Credits