Cultural Understanding of Soils : The Importance of Cultural Diversity and of the Inner World

Cultural understandings of soil are diverse and often ambiguous. Cultural framing of soils is common worldwide and is highly consequential. The implications of what place the earth has in people's world view and everyday life can be in line with or in conflict with natural conditions, with scientific views, or with agricultural practices. The main assumption underlying this work is that soil is inescapably perceived in a cultural context by any human. This gives emergence to different significant webs of meaning influenced by religious, spiritual, or secular myths, and by a wide range of beliefs, values and ideas that people hold in all societies. These patterns and their dynamics inform the human-soil relationship and how soils are cared for, protected, or degraded. Therefore, there is need to deal inter-culturally with different sources and types of knowledge and experience regarding soil; a need to cultivate soil awareness and situationally appropriate care through inter- and intra-cultural dialogues and learning. This project focuses on the human and intangible dimensions of soil. To serve this aim, the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) founded a working group on Cultural Patterns of Soil Understanding that has resulted in this book, which presents studies from almost all continents, written by soil scientists and experts from other disciplines. A major objective of this project is to promote intercultural literacy that gives readers the opportunity to appreciate soil across disciplinary and cultural boundaries in an increasingly globalized world. . . Preface and Acknowledgments Contents About the Editors Part I: Introduction to Cultural Soil Dimensions Chapter 1: Introduction: What Do We Know About Soil and Culture? 1.1 What on Earth Is Soil? 1.2 What About Culture? 1.3 Previous Works on the Cultural Dimension of Soils 1.4 Who Are the Audiences for This Work? References Part II: World Cultures: Religious, Spiritual and Other Worldviews on Soils Chapter 2: Cultural Patterns of Soil Cultivation in Europe 1: Polytheistic Context 2.1 A Prelude: Cultural Embedding of Agriculture in a Shamanic Hunter-Gatherer Culture 2.2 A Paradigmatic Greek Case: Demeter 2.2.1 The Myth 2.2.2 What Did the Demeter Myth Signify for Agriculture and Soil Understanding? 2.2.3 Soil in the Time of the Greco-Roman Religion 2.2.4 Demeter’s Life in Rome and Until the 19th Century in Europe 2.3 Baltic and Slavic Religion 2.3.1 Guardian of the Soil’s Doors 2.3.2 The Knowing Powers in the Underground – and Human Struggles 2.4 Celtic Beliefs About the Underground of Life 2.4.1 Vessels of Fecundity 2.5 Germanic Peoples’ Religion 2.5.1 The Benevolent Divine Couple 2.5.2 The Psychophysic Beings Under Foot 2.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Cultural Patterns of Soil Cultivation in Europe 2: Monotheistic Context 3.1 Emerging Monotheism and the Human-Nature Relationship 3.2 Judaism and the Old Testament 3.2.1 Men of Dust 3.2.2 God Watering the Land and Letting Plants Grow 3.2.3 Destruction of Soils and Swallowing Earth 3.2.4 Adam and Eve 3.2.5 Jewish Theocentrism, Stewardship, and the Earth 3.3 Christian Religion and Soil 3.3.1 The Non-goddess and Her Divine Properties 3.3.2 Christ and Soil 3.3.3 Recent Changes in Christian Approaches Towards Nature and Soil 3.4 Islam in Europe 3.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 4: Cultural Patterns of Soil Cultivation in Europe 3: Scientific Context 4.1 Origins and Development of Scientific Mindset 4.2 Philosophical Ground of Modern Science 4.3 The Nutrient Elements Paradigm 4.4 The Humus of Life 4.5 Economics and Functionalism 4.6 Soil Systems 4.7 “Vital Forces” in Plants and Soil? 4.8 Living Soil—Soil Life 4.9 Mother Earth and Female Spirit 4.10 Compost and the Circle of Life and Death 4.11 Agroecology 4.12 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 5: Soil in the Shamanism Mythology and Rituals in Northern Eurasia 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Distribution of Shamanism in Northern Eurasia 5.3 Mythology: The Creation of Soils and Humans 5.4 Beliefs Connected with Soil and Related Elements 5.5 Practical Rituals Related to Soils 5.6 Ecoshamanism 5.7 Conclusions References Chapter 6: The Importance of Soil in Islam: A Study Based on Statements in the Quran 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Importance of Soil in the Daily Life of the Muslim 6.3 Protection of Soils in Islamic Countries in Terms of Sustainability 6.3.1 Role of Islam in Terms of Global Soil Protection 6.3.1.1 Islamic Faith Around the World 6.3.1.2 Essential Foundations of the Islamic Faith 6.3.1.3 Relation Between God and Man 6.3.1.4 Basic Principles of Faith in Islam 6.3.1.5 Fundamental Relationship Between God and Man According to the Islamic View 6.3.2 Islamic Basic Values and the Discourse of Soil Protection 6.3.2.1 The Position of Soil in Islam 6.3.2.2 Genesis of the Earth As a (Physical) Living Space 6.3.2.3 Earth and Soil As Foundation of Life 6.3.2.4 Usage and Protection of Soils As a Resource 6.4 Results and Discussion 6.4.1 Theological-Philosophical Contextualization of Sustainability 6.4.2 Applied and Practice-Oriented Contextualization 6.5 Perspectives 6.5.1 Local Level 6.5.2 Regional Level 6.5.3 National Level 6.5.4 Societal and Cross Level Measures References Chapter 7: Soil in Rumi’s Thoughts 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Rumi’s Life and Work 7.3 The Four Elements 7.4 Soil and Mankind 7.5 Human Soil Eating 7.6 Conclusion References Chapter 8: The Dogon: The Creation of Consciousness Through Agriculture 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Who Are the Dogon? 8.3 Research Questions 8.4 The Blacksmith Awakens Man to Work, Teaches Him Sowing and Measuring the Fields 8.5 Measure and Number 8.6 A Dream 8.7 Ploughing and Weaving as Cultivation of the Word 8.8 Having Measure Versus Excess 8.9 The Invisible Serpent in the Field 8.10 Final Thoughts References Websites Chapter 9: From Native American Tradition to Modern-Day America: Native Origin Legends That Involve Soil and Earth 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Selected Native American Creation Myths 9.3 Relevance of Native American Earth Spirituality for Modern North American Culture 9.4 Concluding Statements References Chapter 10: The Yoruba Pedosphere: The Tale of Onilé 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Tale 10.3 Contextualizing the Tale 10.3.1 Arriving at the Myth 10.3.2 The Roots of the Myth of Onilé 10.3.3 Methodological Considerations 10.4 Interpreting the Myth 10.5 For a Contemplative Approach of Storytelling Traditions 10.6 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Cultural Understanding of Soil from a Japanese Perspective 11.1 Introduction: Basic Description of Process 11.2 The Etymology of Soil (土: “tu” in Chinese, “tsuchi” in Japanese) 11.3 Soil and Spirits 11.4 Natural Spirits to Deities Related to Soil in Japan 11.5 The Guardians: Paddy Fields, Mountains, Water, and Others 11.6 Understanding Soil Based on Buddhist Philosophy from a Japanese Perspective 11.7 The Importance of Paddy Soil-Based Rice Production from a Japanese Perspective References Chapter 12: Ecosattvas and Ecodharma: Modern Buddhist Perspectives of Soil and the Environment 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Are Buddhist Forest Monks Environmentalists? 12.2 Ecodharma 12.3 A Love Letter to the Earth 12.4 Bodhisattvas and Ecosattvas 12.5 Final Remarks 12.6 A Love Letter to the Soil References Chapter 13: Cultural Understanding of Soil in China 13.1 Etymology of the Character for Soil 13.2 Soil and Creation Myths 13.3 Soil, Yin-Yang, Wuxing, and the Yijing 13.3.1 Soil and Yin-Yang 13.3.2 Soil and Wuxing 13.3.3 Soil and the Yijing 13.4 Soil and Chinese Spiritual Traditions 13.4.1 Daoism and Soil 13.4.2 Sinicized Buddhism and Soil 13.4.3 Confucianism and Soil 13.5 Soil and Governance 13.5.1 Dependence on the Spirits of Soil 13.5.2 Soil Classification and Management 13.6 Soil in Contemporary China 13.6.1 Soil and Population Pressure 13.6.2 Erosion, Pollution, Depletion 13.6.3 Ecological Civilization and Soil Restoration 13.7 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Of Planners, Workers, and Activists: A Short History of Urban Soil Cultures (Europe and North America) 14.1 Introduction 14.2 A Threefold “Metabolic Rift” 14.3 Attention to Soils in Urbanism 14.4 Urban Allotments for the Working Class 14.5 Reclaiming the City and Its Soils 14.6 Soils in the City Today References Part III: Politics on Soil Chapter 15: Sacred Soil, Divine Labor: Economic Theology and the Agrarian Political in Eastern India 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The Agrarian Political and Soil 15.3 Agrarian Labor as Foundation of Wealth, Soil-Oriented Cosmology, and the Critique of Capital 15.4 Male Cultivation and Female Soil: Agrarian Labor as Foundation of Property and Democratic Sovereignty 15.5 Sowing and Soil Goddesses: Female Economic Theology Against Industrial Capitalism 15.6 Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 16: A Deity We Belong to or a Property to Own? Relations Between Land and People in the Sayan Mountains in Southern Siberia 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Research Methods 16.3 Altan Gazar Is the Golden Soil, the Land and the Infinite Earth 16.4 The Ancient Cult of Sacred Land 16.5 Attitudes Toward Land and the Influence of Buddhism 16.6 The Soviet State and Religion 16.7 We Will All Have a Patch the Size of a Sleeping Felt 16.8 Piety, Doubts, and the Perception of Risks 16.9 Concluding Remarks References Part IV: Case Studies on the Inner Soil of Individual Scientists Chapter 17: “The Salt of the Earth”: Bernard Palissy (1510–1590) Between Soil Science and Religion 17.1 Introduction 17.2 On the Biography of Palissy 17.3 God and Nature in the Complete Works 17.3.1 Occurrence of Some Key Words 17.3.2 God Has Created, Nature Is Acting 17.4 Nature, Water, and Salts 17.4.1 Common and “Congelative” Water 17.4.2 Salt and Its Virtues 17.4.3 The Package Water-Salt 17.5 The Discourse of the Commentators 17.5.1 Palissy’s Salt and the Mineral Theory 17.5.2 What the Commentators Have Omitted 17.6 Palissy’s Distance to God 17.7 Final Considerations 17.7.1 Palissy Was a Great Scientist 17.7.2 Soil/Earth and Salt, the Crucial Fifth Element 17.7.3 How Objective Were Palissy’s Reviewers 17.7.4 The Salt of the Earth References Chapter 18: Darwin and the Earthworm: From God the Father to Mother Earth 18.1 The Lineage of Charles Darwin 18.1.1 The Paternal Line 18.1.2 The Maternal Line 18.2 Charles Darwin, Some More Biographical Elements 18.2.1 Youth and Adolescence 18.2.2 The Trip on the “Beagle” 18.2.3 Darwin’s Health Problems 18.2.4 Darwin on His Paternal Family 18.3 Darwin, the Soil and the Earthworm 18.3.1 The Common Life of Darwin and the Earthworm 18.3.2 The Success of the Worms in 1881 and the Pleasure of Darwin 18.4 God, Darwin, the Serpent, and the Earthworm 18.4.1 God and Darwin 18.4.2 The Snake and the Earthworm 18.4.3 There Is the Heaven, There Is the Earth ... Two Works That Make It One References Part V: Soil Relation and Care Chapter 19: Taking Soil Care Seriously: A Proposition 19.1 Introduction 19.2 What Is Care? 19.3 Needs: How Do We Come to Know the Needs of Soil? 19.4 Responsibility: What Does It Mean to Be Responsible for Soil Care? 19.5 Attentiveness: How to Cultivate the Art of Becoming Attentive to Soils? 19.6 Conclusions: Caring for Soils as Caring for Life References Chapter 20: Soil Care, Culture, and Eco-Identities 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Cultural Identities and Moral Cultural Perspectives of Soil/Land/Nature 20.3 Ecological Identities 20.4 Ecopsychology 20.5 An Emergent Environmental Ethics of Care Founded in Ecopsychology and Metamodernism References Chapter 21: Take Care of Soils: Toward a Pluralistic Integral Soil Ethics 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Ethical Perspectives of Soil, Nature, Earth 21.2.1 Soil Natural Ethics: Natural Law and Natural Rights 21.2.2 Virtue Ethics and Valuation of Soils, Nature, Earth 21.2.3 Consequentialist Ethics and Soils 21.2.4 Deontological Ethics and Soils 21.2.5 Stewardship Ethics and Soils 21.2.6 Ethics of Care and Soils 21.3 Pluralistic Integral Soil Ethics References Chapter 22: Inner and Outer Soil 22.1 Humans Perceive Humus 22.2 Factors of Inner Soil Formation 22.3 Psychology of Inner Soil 22.4 Philosophical Remarks 22.5 Conclusions References Part VI: Soil Education and Cultural Language of the Soil Chapter 23: Roots of Soil Perceptions by University and Secondary School Students in Minas Gerais, Brazil 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Study Context and Methods 23.3 Results and Discussion 23.4 Final Considerations References Chapter 24: Degrees Pursued by Students in Different Countries to Train for Careers in Soil Science 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Materials and Methods 24.2.1 Australia 24.2.2 Brazil 24.2.3 Canada 24.2.4 China 24.2.5 Germany 24.2.6 Israel 24.2.7 Japan 24.2.8 Mexico 24.2.9 South Africa 24.2.10 The United Kingdom 24.2.11 The United States 24.3 Results 24.3.1 Australia 24.3.2 Brazil 24.3.3 Canada 24.3.4 China 24.3.5 Germany 24.3.6 Israel 24.3.7 Japan 24.3.8 Mexico 24.3.9 South Africa 24.3.10 The United Kingdom 24.3.11 The United States 24.4 Discussion 24.4.1 Australia 24.4.2 Brazil 24.4.3 Canada 24.4.4 China 24.4.5 Germany 24.4.6 Israel 24.4.7 Japan 24.4.8 Mexico 24.4.9 South Africa 24.4.10 The United Kingdom 24.4.11 The United States 24.5 Comparisons 24.6 Concluding Statements References Chapter 25: Soil Proverbs: Cultural Language of the Soil 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Soil Proverbs Relating to the Common Elements of Culture 25.3 Linkage of Soil Proverbs to Culture: Intercultural or Specific 25.4 Summary References Part VII: Concluding Remarks and Outlook Chapter 26: Summary and Conclusions: Understanding Soil-Cultural Relations 26.1 Diversity of Views 26.2 Soil and Earth: Fertile Grounds for the Creation of Humanity? 26.3 Psycho-Spiritual Motivations That Inform Relations with Soils 26.4 The Influence of Sociopolitical Structures on Soil-Human Relations 26.5 The Feminine and the Masculine with Respect to Soils 26.6 Concepts for Protection and Preservation of Soils for Future Generations 26.7 Tensions and Commonalities Among Cultural Perspectives Regarding Soil 26.7.1 Inter- and Intracultural Contrasts 26.7.2 Historic Continuity and Recurrence of Cultural Patterns 26.7.3 Social Construction Versus Revelation and Exclusion Versus Inclusion of Cultural Views 26.7.4 Intercultural Congruities 26.7.5 What Can Be Learned from a Deeper Cultural Understanding of Soils? 26.8 What Needs More Attention and Action? 26.8.1 Religion and Spirituality 26.8.2 Cultural Dimensions of Soil Communication 26.9 Concluding Statements References Index