Crossroads and Cultures: A History of the World's Peoples, to 1450

Cover Page 1 Title Page 7 Copyright Page 8 A Conversation with the Authors: The Story Behind Crossroads and Cultures 9 How to Use This Book 14 Versions and Supplements 23 Note on Dates and Usage 25 BRIEF CONTENTS 27 CONTENTS 29 Maps 37 Special Features 39 Acknowledgments 40 PART 1 The Ancient World, from Human Origins to 500 C.E. 44 1 Peopling the World, To 4000 B.C.E. 49 Backstory 49 Human Origins 52 Evolution of the Human Species 53 Out of Africa 57 Paleolithic Food Gatherers, 2,000,000 –9000 B.C.E. 59 The Gatherer–Hunter Economy 59 Life in Paleolithic Communities 61 The First Neolithic Farmers, 9000–4000 B.C.E. 64 The Origins of Agriculture 65 Life in Neolithic Communities 69 COUNTERPOINT Gatherer–Hunters by Choice: Aborigines of Australia 73 Understanding the History of Aborigines 73 A Lifestyle in Harmony with the Natural World 74 The Conscious Choice to Gather and Hunt 75 Religious Life and Social Organization 76 Conclusion 77 Notes 77 Resources for Research 77 Review 79 READING THE PAST Fossil Hunting 54 SEEING THE PAST Paleolithic Statuettes of Women 63 SEEING THE PAST Saharan Rock Art 68 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The People of Çatal Höyük 72 2 Temples and Palaces: Birth of the City, 5000–1200 B.C.E. 81 Backstory 81 Origins of Urban Society: Mesopotamia, 5000–3200 B.C.E. 85 The Environmental Challenge 85 Irrigation and Its Impact 86 The First Cities, 3200–1600 B.C.E. 87 The Power of the Temple 87 The Might of the Palace 91 The New Order of Society 92 City Life and Learning 94 The Invention of Writing 95 The Expansion of Knowledge 96 The First International Order, 1600–1200 B.C.E. 98 From City-States to Territorial States in the Eastern Mediterranean 98 International Relations 100 Kings and Commoners: An Unequal System 102 COUNTERPOINT Egypt’s Distinct Path to Statehood 104 Egypt’s Geography and Early History 104 Egyptian Ideology of Kingship 105 The New Culture of Statehood 108 Conclusion 110 Notes 111 Resources for Research 111 Review 113 SEEING THE PAST The Uruk Vase 88 READING THE PAST Royal Inscriptions from Early Mesopotamia 91 SEEING THE PAST The Palette of Narmer 106 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Pyramid Builders of the Pharaohs 108 3 Settlers and Migrants: The Creation of Statesin Asia, 5000–500 B.C.E. 115 Backstory 115 Early Agricultural Societies of South and East Asia, 5000–1000 B.C.E. 118 Settled Farmers of the River Valleys 118 Nomadic Herders of the Steppe 120 The Indus Valley Culture, 2600–1900 B.C.E. 122 Urban Society in the Indus Valley 122 Harappan Crafts and Long-Distance Trade 125 The End of the Indus Valley Culture 125 Indo-European Migrations, 3000–1000 B.C.E. 127 Indo-European Languages 127 Indo-European Migrations 127 Indo-European Speakers and Eurasian History 128 India’s Vedic Age, 1500–500 B.C.E. 129 Vedic Origins 129 Rise of a New Society: Families, Clans, and Castes 129 Vedic Religion 131 Developments in Vedic Ideas 132 The Early Chinese Dynasties, 2000–771 B.C.E. 133 Re-Creating Early China: Literary Traditions and the Archaeological Record 134 The Growth of States, 2000–1570 B.C.E. 134 The Shang Dynasty and the Consolidation of Power, 1570–1027 B.C.E. 135 The Early Zhou Dynasty and the Extension of Power, 1027–771 B.C.E. 137 COUNTERPOINT The Oxus People: A Short-Lived Culture in Central Asia, 2100–1700 B.C.E. 141 Conclusion 143 Notes 143 Resources for Research 143 Review 145 SEEING THE PAST Inscribed Seals from the Indus Valley 126 READING THE PAST The Upanishads 132 LIVES AND LIVELIHOOD Chinese Diviners 138 READING THE PAST The Chinese Book of Songs 140 4 Creation of Empire: North Africa and Southwest Asia, 1550–330 B.C.E. 147 Backstory 147 Imperial Egypt and Nubia, 1550 B.C.E.–330 C.E 150 The Imperial Might of New Kingdom Egypt, 1550–1070 B.C.E. 151 Nubia’s Rise and Rule of Egypt, 1000–660 B.C.E. 155 The Nubian Kingdom of Meroe, 400 B.C.E.–350 C.E. 157 Rise and Fall of the Assyrian Empire, 900–612 B.C.E. 159 Assyria: A Society as War Machine 159 Imperial Governance 161 Independence Preserved: Phoenicians in the Assyrian Empire 162 Culture and Identity in the Assyrian Empire 164 Failure of the Assyrian System 165 The Persian Empire, 550–330 B.C.E. 166 The Course of Empire 167 Administering a Multicultural Empire 169 Zoroastrianism in a Polytheistic World 172 COUNTERPOINT Assimilation and Resistance: The Peoples of Israel and Judah 173 Reconstructing the Histories of Israel and Judah 173 Peoples Uprooted: Deportation and Exile 174 Judean Resistance and Dispersal 175 Conclusion 177 Notes 177 Resources for Research 177 Review 179 READING THE PAST Akhenaten Praises His God, Aten 153 SEEING THE PAST The Queen of Meroe in Battle 158 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Mesopotamian Astronomers 166 READING THE PAST The God Yahweh and the People of Israel Form a Covenant 176 5 The Greeks and the Wider World, 1200–30 B.C.E. 181 Backstory 181 The Development of Ancient Greek Culture, 1200–500 B.C.E. 184 A Dark Age in Aegean Life and Culture, 1200–800 B.C.E. 184 Greek Colonization of the Mediterranean, 800–500 B.C.E. 185 Foreign Contacts and Influences 186 Growth of the City-State in Archaic Greece, 800–500 B.C.E. 187 A Cultural Reawakening 190 The Persian Wars, Classical Greece, and the Concept of Cultural Difference, 500–338 B.C.E. 191 Struggle Between Persia and Greece, 500–479 B.C.E. 191 Athens’s Golden Age, 500–400 B.C.E. 193 The Peloponnesian War and the End of Athenian Supremacy, 431–404 B.C.E. 198 Daily Life in Classical Greece 198 Hellenism: The Expansion of Greek Ideals and Institutions, 323–30 B.C.E. 201 Creation of the Hellenistic Empires, 323–275 B.C.E. 201 The Hellenistic City 203 Hellenistic Learning and Livelihoods 204 COUNTERPOINT The Celtic Peoples of the Atlantic Zone 205 Who Were the Celts? 206 Celtic Livelihoods 207 Contacts with the Mediterranean 207 Conclusion 209 Notes 209 Resources for Research 209 Review 211 READING THE PAST Pericles Praises the Democratic Ideal 189 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Philosophers of Athens’s Golden Age 196 READING THE PAST Semonides Catalogues the Evils of Women 200 SEEING THE PAST The Vix Crater: A Greek Vessel in Northern France 208 6 Peoples and World Empires: Classical India, the Kushan Empire, and China, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E. 213 Backstory 213 India: Thinkers, Traders, and Courtly Cultures, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E. 216 Religious Ferment: The Rise of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism 216 Unity and Fragmentation: The Mauryan and Gupta Empires 220 A Crossroads of Trade 223 Literary and Scientific Flowering 224 The Kushan Peoples of Central Asia, 100 B.C.E.–233 C.E. 225 Foundations of Empire 226 A Merging of Cultural Influences 227 Farmers and Traders: The Kushan Economy 228 China’s First Empires: The Qin and Han Dynasties, 221 B.C.E.–220 C.E. 230 Intellectual Churning: Confucians, Daoists, and Legalists 230 Unification and Centralization: The Worlds of Qin and Han 231 Preserving and Spreading the Written Word 235 COUNTERPOINT Tamil Kingdoms of South India 239 Rise of the Tamil Kingdoms 239 Tamil Culture and Society 240 Conclusion 241 Notes 241 Resources for Research 242 Review 243 READING THE PAST A Family of Chinese Historians Traces Early Kushan History 226 SEEING THE PAST Kushan Coins 229 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Papermakers 236 READING THE PAST Women in Han China 238 7 The Unification of Western Eurasia, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E. 245 Backstory 245 Rome: A Republican Center of Power, 500–27 B.C.E. 248 From Village to World Empire 249 Society and Politics in the Republic 250 Failure of the Republic 253 Rome: The Empire, 27 B.C.E.–212 C.E. 254 Emperors and Armies 254 The Provincial System and the Diffusion of Roman Culture 259 Christianity: From Jewish Sect to Imperial Religion 262 Religions in the Roman Empire 262 Christianity’s Spread Outside the Jewish Community 264 Toward a State Religion, 50–324 C.E. 264 Institutionalization of the Christian Church 267 Transformation of the Roman Empire, 200–500 C.E. 268 Division Between East and West 269 Economic Strains and Social Tensions 269 Collapse in the West and Revitalization in the East 270 COUNTERPOINT Rome’s Iranian Rivals in the Middle East 271 The Parthians, 247 B.C.E.–224 C.E. 271 The Sasanids, 224–651 C.E. 272 A Tapestry of Cultures and Religions 273 Conclusion 275 Notes 275 Resources for Research 275 Review 277 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Roman Engineers 256 SEEING THE PAST The Augustan Cameo Gem 259 READING THE PAST A Young Woman Laments Her Premature Death 262 READING THE PAST A Sasanid Account of the Wars with Rome 274 8 Reading the Unwritten Record: Peoples of Africa, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands, 3000 B.C.E.–500 C.E. 279 Backstory 279 Peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa 282 Early Hunters and Herders 283 Bantu Migrations 283 Peoples of the Americas 288 The Olmecs, 1200–400 B.C.E. 289 The Early Maya, 400 B.C.E.–250 C.E. 291 Andean Peoples, 900 b.c.e.–600 C.E. 293 Gatherer-Hunters of North America, 800 B.C.E.–400 C.E. 297 Peoples of the Pacific Islands 298 Agricultural Livelihoods 298 Peopling the Islands 299 COUNTERPOINT The Voiced and Voiceless in Ancient Literate Societies 301 Uses of the Written Record 302 The Voiceless Many 302 Conclusion 304 Notes 305 Resources for Research 305 Review 306 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Potters of Antiquity 286 READING THE PAST The La Mojarra Stele 292 SEEING THE PAST Early Maya Frescoes 294 PART 2 The Formation of Regional Societies, 500–1450 C.E. 308 9 The Worlds of Christianity and Islam, 400–1000 313 Backstory 313 Multiple Christianities, 400–850 316 The Christian Church in Byzantium 317 Christianity in Asia and Africa 318 Christian Communities in Western Europe 321 Social and Political Renewal in the Post-Roman World, 400–850 322 Crisis and Survival of the Byzantine Empire 323 The Germanic Successor States in Western Europe 324 Economic Contraction and Renewal in Christendom 327 Origins of the Slavs and the Founding of Rus 328 The Rise and Spread of Islam, 610–750 331 The Prophet Muhammad and the Faith of Islam 331 The Islamic Empire of the Umayyad Caliphs, 661–743 334 From Unified Caliphate to Islamic Commonwealth, 750–1000 335 Rise of the Abbasid Caliphs 337 Rise of the Religious Scholars 339 Collapse of the Unified Caliphate 339 COUNTERPOINT The Norse Vikings: The New Barbarians 340 The Viking Raids, 790–1020 340 Norse Emigration and Colonization 342 Conclusion 343 Notes 343 Resources for Research 344 Review 345 SEEING THE PAST Mary as Mother of God 319 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Constantinople’s Silk Producers 328 READING THE PAST Women and Property in Islam 333 READING THE PAST The Pact of Umar 336 10 Religion and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Asia, 400–1000 347 Backstory 347 Steppe Peoples and Settled Societies of Central Asia 350 Nomad Conquerors of China: The Northern Wei, 386–534 351 Rise of the Turks 352 A Turkic Khanate in the West: The Khazars 353 The Shaping of East Asia 353 The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism 354 Reunification of the Chinese Empire: The Sui Dynasty, 581–618 356 The Power of Tang China, 618-907 357 China and Its Neighbors 359 The Consolidation of Hindu Society in India 363 Land and Wealth 363 Devotional Worship in Hinduism 365 New Economic and Social Trends 366 Court Society and Culture 367 The Diffusion of Indian Traditions to Southeast Asia 369 Commerce and Religious Change in Southeast Asia 369 Religion and the Constitution of State Power 370 Indian Religions in Southeast Asia: A Summing-up 372 COUNTERPOINT Sogdian Traders in Central Asia and China 374 A Robust Commercial Economy 374 Breakdown of the Trade Network 376 Conclusion 376 Notes 377 Resources for Research 377 Review 379 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Tea Drinkers in Tang China 360 READING THE PAST A Copper-Plate Land Grant Inscription 365 SEEING THE PAST Borobudur: The World’s Largest Buddhist Monument 373 READING THE PAST Letters from a Sogdian Castaway 375 11 Societies and Networks in the Americas and the Pacific, 300–1200 381 Backstory 381 The Classical Age of Mesoamerica and Its Aftermath 384 Political Power and Ideology in Mesoamerica 385 The City-State of Teotihuacán 387 The Maya City-State Network 389 The Passing of Mesoamerica’s Classical Age 392 City and State Building in the Andean Region 394 States and Societies in the Coastal Lowlands 394 States and Societies in the Andean Highlands 395 Agrarian Societies in North America 398 Pueblo Societies in the Southwestern Deserts 398 Mound-Building Societies in the Eastern Woodlands 400 Habitat and Adaptation in the Pacific Islands 405 Polynesian Expansion 405 Subsistence and Survival in the Pacific Islands 407 COUNTERPOINT Social Complexity in Bougainville 409 Bougainville’s Diverse Peoples 409 The Historical Roots of Social Difference 410 Conclusion 411 Resources for Research 412 Review 413 READING THE PAST The Maya Hero Twins Vanquish the Lords of the Underworld 390 SEEING THE PAST Images of Power in Tiwanaku Art 397 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The North American Mound Builders 402 SEEING THE PAST Symbols of Fertility in Cahokian Sculpture 404 12 The Rise of Commerce in Afro-Eurasia, 900–1300 415 Backstory 415 Agricultural Innovation and Diffusion 418 Retrenchment and Renewal in Europe and Byzantium 418 Agricultural Transformation in the Islamic World 420 Rice Economies in Monsoon Asia 421 Industrial Growth and the Money Economy 423 Technological Change and Industrial Enterprise 424 Expanding Circulation of Money 426 Credit and the Invention of Paper Money 427 Merchants and Trade Networks in Afro-Eurasia 430 Merchant Partnerships and Long-Distance Trade 430 Merchants and Rulers 432 Maritime Traders in the Indian Ocean 434 Trans-Saharan Traders 438 Mediterranean and European Traders 439 COUNTERPOINT Production, Tribute, and Trade in the Hawaiian Islands 440 Settlement and Agriculture 441 Exchange and Social Hierarchy 444 Conclusion 445 Notes 445 Resources for Research 446 Review 447 SEEING THE PAST Imitation and Innovation in Islamic Coinage 428 READING THE PAST The Commenda Partnership Among Venetian Merchants 431 READING THE PAST A Chinese Official’s Reflections on Managing Family Property 434 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Mande Blacksmiths 442 13 Centers of Learning and the Transmission of Culture, 900–1300 449 Backstory 449 Church and Universities in Latin Christendom 452 Monastic Learning and Culture 452 The Rise of Universities 455 Vernacular Language and Literature 457 Students and Scholars in Islamic Societies 458 The Rise of Madrasas 459 Sufi Mysticism and Sunni Orthodoxy 461 Oral and Written Cultures in Islam 462 The Cosmopolitan and Vernacular Realms in India and Southeast Asia 466 The Cosmopolitan Realm of Sanskrit 466 Rival States and Regional Identity 468 Sufism and Society in the Delhi Sultanate 469 Learning, Schools, and Print Culture in East Asia 470 Civil Service Examinations and Schooling in Song China 471 The Culture of Print in Song China 473 Classical and Vernacular Traditions in East Asia 475 COUNTERPOINT Writing and Political Power in Mesoamerica 477 Mesoamerican Languages: Time, History, and Rulership 477 The Legacy of Mesoamerican Languages 478 Conclusion 479 Notes 479 Resources for Research 480 Review 481 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Medical Professionals of Latin Christendom 454 READING THE PAST Ibn Khaldun on Study and Learning 463 SEEING THE PAST A Revolution in Islamic Calligraphy 465 READING THE PAST Lady Murasaki on Her Peers Among Women Writers 476 14 Crusaders, Mongols, and Eurasian Integration, 1050–1350 483 Backstory 483 The Crusades and the Imperial Papacy, 1050–1350 486 The Papal Monarchy 486 The Crusades, 1095–1291 488 Papal Supremacy and the Christian People 490 The Making of Christian Europe, 1100–1350 492 The Reconquest of Spain, 1085–1248 492 Christianizing Eastern Europe, 1150–1350 493 The Mongol World-Empire, 1100–1368 497 Rise of the Mongols 497 Creation and Division of the Mongol Empire, 1206–1259 500 Qubilai Khan and the Yuan Empire in China, 1260–1368 500 The Mongol Khanates and the Islamic World, 1240–1350 503 Mongol Rule in Iran and Mesopotamia 503 The Golden Horde and the Rise of Muscovy 505 Retrenchment in the Islamic World: The Mamluk and Ottoman States 506 COUNTERPOINT The “New Knighthood” of the Christian Military Orders 509 The Templar Model and the Crusading Movement 509 The Teutonic Knights and Christian Expansion in Eastern Europe 510 Conclusion 511 Notes 512 Resources for Research 512 Review 514 READING THE PAST A Muslim Courtier’s Encounters with the Franks 491 READING THE PAST Bernard of Clairvaux’s Summons to the Wendish Crusade 494 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Mongol Women in the Household Economy and Public Life 498 15 Collapse and Revivalin Afro-Eurasia, 1300–1450 517 Backstory 517 Fourteenth-Century Crisis and Renewal in Eurasia 520 The “Great Mortality”: The Black Death of 1347–1350 521 Rebuilding Societies in Western Europe, 1350–1492 524 Ming China and the New Order in East Asia, 1368–1500 527 Islam’s New Frontiers 530 Islamic Spiritual Ferment in Central Asia, 1350–1500 530 Ottoman Expansion and the Fall of Constantinople, 1354–1453 531 Commerce and Culture in Islamic West Africa 533 Advance of Islam in Maritime Southeast Asia 534 The Global Bazaar 535 Economic Prosperity and Maritime Trade in Asia, 1350–1450 536 China’s Overseas Overture: The Voyages of Zheng He, 1405–1433 540 Commerce and Culture in the Renaissance 541 COUNTERPOINT Age of the Samurai in Japan, 1185–1450 543 “The Low Overturning the High” 545 The New Warrior Order 545 Conclusion 547 Notes 547 Resources for Research 548 Review 549 READING THE PAST A French Theologian’s View of the Black Death 524 READING THE PAST A Spanish Ambassador’s Description of Samarkand 532 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Urban Weavers in India 538 SEEING THE PAST Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks 544 PART 3 The Early World, 1450–1750 550 16 Empires and Alternatives in the Americas, 1430–1530 555 Backstory 555 Many Native Americas 558 Tributes of Blood: The Aztec Empire, 1325–1521 561 Humble Origins, Imperial Ambitions 562 Enlarging and Supplying the Capital 565 Holy Terror: Aztec Rule, Religion, and Warfare 565 Daily Life Under the Aztecs 568 The Limits of Holy Terror 571 Tributes of Sweat: The Inca Empire, 1430–1532 571 From Potato Farmers to Empire Builders 572 The Great Apparatus: Inca Expansion and Religion 572 Daily Life Under the Incas 576 The Great Apparatus Breaks Down 579 COUNTERPOINT The Peoples of North America’s Eastern Woodlands, 1450–1530 580 Conclusion 584 Notes 584 Resources for Research 584 Review 586 SEEING THE PAST An Aztec Map of Tenochtitlán 563 SEEING THE PAST The Coyolxauhqui Stone 566 LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Aztec Midwife 570 READING THE PAST An Andean Creation Story 575 __Crossroads and Cultures: A History of the World’s Peoples__ incorporates the best current cultural history into a fresh and original narrative that connects global patterns of development with life on the ground. As the title, “Crossroads,” suggests, this new synthesis highlights the places and times where people exchanged goods and commodities, shared innovations and ideas, waged war and spread disease, and in doing so joined their lives to the broad sweep of global history. Students benefit from a strong pedagogical design, abundant maps and images, and special features that heighten the narrative’s attention to the lives and voices of the world’s peoples.Test drive a chapter today. Find out how.