Cross-Cultural Psychology : Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications, Seventh Edition

Written in a conversational style that transforms complex ideas into accessible ones, this international best-selling textbook provides an interdisciplinary review of the theories and research in cross‐cultural psychology. The text’s unique critical thinking framework, including Critical Thinking boxes, helps students develop analytical skills. Exercises interspersed throughout promote active learning and encourage class discussion. Case in Point sections review controversial issues and opinions about behavior in different cultural contexts. Cross‐Cultural Sensitivity boxes underscore the importance of empathy in communication. Numerous applications prepare students for working in various multicultural contexts such as teaching, counseling, health care, and social work. New to the 7th Edition: over 190 recent references, particularly on studies of non-Western regions such as the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Latin America, as well as the United States and Europe. broader discussion of gender roles and health behaviors across cultures. new discussions related to the psychological fallout of both globalization and anti-globalization tendencies. greater attention shifted from general psychological theories to specific challenges of cross-cultural psychology. new or revised chapter openings that draw upon current events. more examples related to the experiences of international students in the United States and indigenous people. updated figures, tables, and graphs that are also available for download for instructors to utilize in their online teaching. new research on global trends, nationalism, gender, race, religious beliefs, parenting styles, sexual orientation, ethnic identity and stereotypes, immigration, intelligence, substance abuse, states of consciousness, DSM-5 , cultural customs, evolutionary psychology, treatment of psychological disorders, and acculturation. online resources for instructors and students. The dynamic author team brings a diverse set of experiences in writing this text that provides cross-cultural perspectives on topics such as sensation, perception, consciousness, intelligence, human development, emotion, motivation, social perception, personality, psychological disorders, and various applied topics. Cover 1 Half title 2 Title page 4 Copyright page 5 Dedication 6 Brief contents 7 Table of contents 8 About the authors 15 Preface 17 Chapter 1 Understanding cross-cultural psychology 26 What is cross-cultural psychology? 27 Basic definitions 29 Culture 29 Society, race, and ethnicity 30 Knowledge in cross-cultural psychology 34 Cultural traditionalism 36 Empirical examination of culture 38 Collectivism and individualism: further research 40 Cultural syndromes 42 The natural science approach 43 The social sciences approach 45 The humanities approach 46 The ecocultural approach 47 The cultural mixtures approach 49 The integrative approach: a summary 50 Indigenous psychology 52 Ethnocentrism 52 Multiculturalism 53 A brief history of the field 53 Chapter summary 55 Key terms 56 References 58 Chapter 2 Critical thinking in cross-cultural psychology 66 The evaluative bias of language: to describe is to prescribe 67 Antidotes 71 Differentiating dichotomous variables and continuous variables: black and white, or shades of gray? 71 Antidotes 73 The similarity–uniqueness paradox: all phenomena are both similar and different 73 Antidotes 77 The barnum effect: “one-size-fits-all” descriptions 77 Antidotes 79 The assimilation bias: viewing the world through schema-colored glasses 79 Antidotes 81 The representativeness bias: fits and misfits of categorization 82 Antidotes 85 The availability bias: the persuasive power of vivid events 85 Antidotes 88 The fundamental attribution error: underestimating the impact of external influences 88 Antidotes 91 The self-fulfilling prophecy: when expectations create reality 92 Antidotes 93 Correlation does not prove causation: confusing “what” with “why” 94 Antidotes 97 Bidirectional causation and multiple causation: causal loops and compound pathways 97 Bidirectional causation 97 Multiple causation 99 Antidotes 101 The naturalistic fallacy: blurring the line between “is” and “should” 101 Antidotes 105 The belief perseverance effect: “don’t confuse me with the facts!” 105 Antidotes 109 Conclusions: “to metathink or not to metathink?” 109 Chapter summary 110 Key terms 112 References 114 Chapter 3 Methodology of cross-cultural research 119 Goals of cross-cultural research 120 Quantitative research in cross-cultural psychology 121 Quantitative approach: measurement scales 122 Quantitative approach: looking for links and differences 123 Qualitative approach in cross-cultural psychology 124 Major steps for preparation of a cross-cultural study 125 Sample selection 127 Observation in cross-cultural psychology 130 Survey methods 131 Experimental studies 133 Content analysis 134 Focus group methodology 136 Meta-analysis: research of research 137 A hidden obstacle of cross-cultural studies: test translation 138 Comparing two phenomena: some important principles 140 On similarities and differences: some critical thinking applications 142 Cultural dichotomies 143 There are fewer differences than one might think 143 There are more differences than one might expect 144 Avoiding bias of generalizations 144 Know more about the cultures you examine 146 Chapter summary 150 Key terms 151 References 153 Chapter 4 Cognition: sensation, perception, and states of consciousness 159 Sensation and perception: basic principles 160 How culture influences what we perceive 161 How people perceive pictures 164 Perception of depth 166 Are people commonly misled by visual illusions? 167 Some cultural patterns of drawing 169 Perception of color 169 Other senses 172 Hearing 173 Taste 173 Smell 174 Touch and pain 174 Perception of time 176 Perception of the beautiful 179 Perception of music 180 Consciousness and culture 181 Sleep and cultural significance of dreams 183 Beyond altered states of consciousness 188 Chapter summary 193 Key terms 194 References 195 Chapter 5 Intelligence 204 Defining intelligence 204 Ethnic differences in iq scores 208 Gender differences in iq scores 210 Explaining group differences in test scores: intelligence and intelligent behavior 210 Do biological factors contribute to intelligence? 212 Incompatibility of tests: cultural biases 214 A word about “cultural literacy” 215 Environment and intelligence 216 Socioeconomic factors 217 The family factor 219 “natural selection” and iq scores 221 Cultural values of cognition 222 General cognition: what is “underneath” intelligence? 226 Classification 226 Sorting 227 Memory 227 Formal and mathematical reasoning 228 Creativity 229 Cognitive skills, school grades, and educational systems 230 Culture, tests, and motivation 232 Iq, culture, and social justice 234 And in the end, moral values 236 Chapter summary 239 Key terms 241 References 241 Chapter 6 Emotion 250 When we laugh we are happy: similarities of emotional experience 253 You cannot explain pain if you have never been hurt: differences in emotional experience 256 Emotions: different or universal? 258 Physiological arousal 259 The meaning of preceding events 260 Emotion as an evaluation 263 We are expected to feel in a particular way 265 How people assess emotional experience 267 Expression of emotion 269 Emotion and inclination to act 272 Emotion and judgment 273 When emotions signal a challenge: cross-cultural research on stress and anxiety 273 When emotion hurts: cross-cultural studies of anger 275 Building positive emotions: cross-cultural studies of happiness 275 Chapter summary 279 Key terms 280 References 280 Chapter 7 Motivation and behavior 290 A glance into evolution 291 Social science: see the society first 292 Drive and arousal: two universal mechanisms of motivation 293 The power of the unconscious: psychoanalysis 294 The humanistic approach 295 Learning and motivation 298 A carrot and a beef tongue: hunger and food preference 299 When hunger causes distress: eating disorders 299 Victory and harmony: achievement motivation 300 Aggressive motivation and violence 305 Culture and sexuality 311 Sex and sexuality: some cross-cultural similarities 314 Chapter summary 316 Key terms 317 References 318 Chapter 8 Human development and socialization 327 Development and socialization 328 Quality of life and the child’s development 328 Norms, customs, and child care 329 Parental values and expectations 332 Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development 334 Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 337 Stages of moral development according to kohlberg 338 Developmental stages 340 Life before birth: prenatal period 341 First steps: infancy 343 Discovering the world: childhood 347 Major rehearsal: adolescence 349 Adulthood 352 Late adulthood 355 Chapter summary 358 Key terms 360 References 360 Chapter 9 Psychological disorders 370 American background: DSM-5 370 Two views on culture and psychological disorders 371 Central and peripheral symptoms: an outcome of the debate between universalists and relativists 374 Cultural syndromes 376 Anxiety disorders 380 Depressive disorders 382 Schizophrenia 385 Culture and suicide 387 Personality disorders 390 Is substance abuse culturally bound? 396 Psychodiagnostic biases 399 Psychotherapy 400 Culture match? 403 Chapter summary 407 Key terms 408 References 409 Chapter 10 Social perception, social cognition, and social interaction 417 Attitudes and values 418 Western and non-western values 421 Striving for consistency: the cognitive balance theory 424 Avoiding inconsistency: cognitive dissonance 424 Psychological dogmatism 425 Social attribution 426 Attribution of success and failure 427 Duty and fairness in individualist and collectivist cultures 428 Stereotypes and the power of generalizations 429 Universal interaction 433 Direct contacts and body language 437 Conformity 439 Is conformity universal across cultures? 440 Following orders 443 Social influence 445 Feeling good about some views 447 Is social loafing universal? 448 Chapter summary 450 Key terms 452 References 453 Chapter 11 Personality and the self 462 What is personality? 462 Locus of control 463 On “national character” 466 The self 469 The self and sex 472 Traditional cultural views of the sexes 472 Evolving views of the sexes 474 Gender as a social construct 475 Gender roles 476 Traditional views of gender 477 Evolving views of gender 478 Sexual orientation: evolving perceptions 480 Religious identity 482 Seeing one’s own body 483 Chapter summary 485 Key terms 486 References 488 Chapter 12 Applied cross-cultural psychology: some highlights 494 Health 495 Spirituality, science, and health 499 Holistic treatment 503 Business decisions 504 Working with immigrants and refugees 507 Human rights 512 Education 513 Culture, behavior, and the law 514 Working and serving abroad 515 Conclusion 518 Chapter summary 519 Key terms 519 References 520 Index 525