Crisis on the Coast and Hinterland : Assessing India’s East Coast with Geomorphological, Environmental and Remote Sensing and GIS Approaches

This contributed volume assesses the state and future of India’s East Coast through a wide variety of chapters grouped by methodology and approach. Part I: Assessment through Geomorphological Approaches describes geomorphological diversities of the eastern shorelines of India, Coastal Modelling System- SMC and morphodynamics of Odisha coast, Paleo shorelines and beach ridge chenier formations of Subarnarekha delta, seasonal sediment budget of Chandrabhaga beachdune system, Beach stage and dune stage modelling Mandarmoni coast, drainage characters of South Andaman Islands, coastal foredune morphology and sediment of Odisha and West Bengal, Geo-archaeological pieces of evidence of ancient coastal environment, coastal sediment characters, beach ridge formation in the chenier coast, and geomorphological changes of ancient ports and harbours in the shoreline of West Bengal. Part II: Assessment through Environmental Approaches addresses various environmental assessmenttechniques of mangrove sensitivity to the sea level rise process in the Sundarban, land degradation of the hinterland drainage basins, the riparian environment of the coastal drainage basins, agricultural adaptability in response to climate variability in the coastal areas of West Bengal, forest degradations of the lateritic upland tracts, coastal tourism potentialities in Odisha and West Bengal, Climate variabilities and agricultural modifications in the hinterland areas of West Bengal districts, the tidal flat environment of Sagar Island, landforms and Geomorphosites for the promotion of Geotourism in South Andaman Perils of Premature Reclamation of Sundarban, marine litter in the coastal regions of West Bengal and Odisha on flora, fauna and humans, Ground water contamination due to saline water encroachment in coastal Andhra Pradesh and Spatio-temporal changes in the Hugli estuarine environment and coastal hazards and flood risk of southwestern Sundarban. Part III: Assessment through Remote Sensing & GIS Approaches uses the aforementioned techniques in service of exploration of monitoring health of Mangrove forest, Geomorphological analysis of the coral fringed coasts of Andaman, hydrological and morphological variations of Ichhamati Tidal estuary, multivariate analysis of coastal vulnerabilities, geography of tourism resources in Andaman group of islands, tourism climate index with application geospatial techniques, diversity of landscape ecology in the coastal blocks of Purba Medinipur, overwash vulnerability in Odisha coast, livelihood security index of the coastal communities, managing coastal squeeze response and wetland loss in the estuarine coastal tract of West Bengal, environmental effects of historical land reclamation process in the Sundarban, and emerging environmental problems of coastal urbanization in Digha, Kanthi, and Haldia. Preface Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures List of Tables Abbreviations About the Editors Editors and Contributors Contributors Part I: Assessment Through Geomorphological Approaches Chapter 1: Geomorphological Diversity and Sea Level Rise Vulnerabilities on India’s East Coast 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Study Area 1.3 Methods of the Study 1.4 Results and Discussion 1.4.1 Geology and Tectonic Setup 1.4.2 Physiographic Diversity 1.4.3 Geomorphology 1.4.4 Drainage Characters 1.4.5 Hazard and Vulnerabilities 1.5 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Nearshore Morphological Alteration through Sediment Dynamics: An Integrated Software Based (Coastal Modelling System-SMC) Approach for Deltaic Balasore Coast, Odisha, India 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Study Area 2.3 SMC for Coastal Modelling 2.3.1 Methodology 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Wave Propagation 2.4.2 Significant Wave Heights 2.4.3 Wave Height 2.4.4 Phase Component 2.4.5 Wave Front 2.4.6 Current and Topography 2.4.7 Sediment Transport Through the Current 2.4.8 Sediment Transport and Morphological Alteration 2.5 Discussion 2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Shoreline Change and Associated Beach Ridge Chenier Formations in the Subarnarekha Delta Region, India 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Material and Methods 3.2.1 Study Area 3.2.2 Database and Data Processing 3.3 Results and Discussion 3.3.1 Landscape Evolution of the Subarnarekha Delta 3.3.2 Changing Pattern of Shorelines and Associated Marine Environment 3.3.3 Geomorphology of Subarnarekha Delta 3.4 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Estimation of Seasonal Sediment Budget of Chandrabhaga Beach-Dune System, Bay of Bengal, India 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Study Area 4.3 Data Collection and Methodology 4.4 Results and Discussion 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Evidence of an Ancient Coastline in the Southwest Sundarban, India, with Investigation of Geoarchaeological Remains 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Study Area 5.3 Materials and Method 5.4 Results and Discussion 5.4.1 Archaeological Places of Southwestern Sundarban Coastal Plain 5.4.2 Geographical Distribution of Archaeological Sites of Sundarban Coastal Plain in Relation to Local Environment 5.5 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Beach Stage and Dune Stage Modelling Approach in the Geomorphological Evolution of Beach Dune Landscapes, Mandarmoni Coast, India 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Study Area 6.3 Methodology 6.4 Results and Discussion 6.4.1 Estimation of Sediment Transportation Budget 6.4.2 Estimation of Wave Hydrodynamics 6.4.3 Estimation of Aerodynamics 6.4.4 Micro-geomorphic Features 6.4.5 Estimation of Beach-Dune Morphodynamism 6.5 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Spit Dynamics and Hydrogeomorphic Processes Along the Chilika Lagoon Estuary of Odisha, India 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Study Area: Chilika Lagoon 7.3 Database and Methodology 7.4 Results and Discussion 7.4.1 Geomorphological Evolution of the Chilika Lagoon 7.4.2 Spit Dynamics 7.4.3 Changing Inlet of the Lagoon 7.4.4 Annual Flow of Water and Sediment in the Mahanadi River 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Barrier Spit Morphology and Beach Ridge Formation in the Subarnarekha Delta: A Review of the Protective Functions of the Low-Lying Coast 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Method 8.3 Results and Discussion 8.3.1 Multiple Shoreline Processes 8.3.2 Beach Ridge Formation 8.3.3 Chenier Sand Ridge Deposits 8.3.4 Linear Swales with Tidal Basins 8.3.5 Paleo Beach Ridges with Shifting Shoreline Characters 8.3.6 Climate Change Reworking 8.3.7 Reconstructing the Depositional Environment 8.4 Conclusion References Part II: Assessment Through Environmental Approaches Chapter 9: The Degradation of Coastal Habitats in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu: An Environmental Approach 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Study Area 9.3 Materials and Methods 9.4 Results and Discussion 9.4.1 Coastal Habitat Diversity in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu 9.4.2 Temporal Changes in Coastal Habitats and Trends of Degradation 9.4.3 Selection of Multicriterion Factors for Assessing Habitat Degradation 9.4.4 Assessment of the Habitat Quality Index 9.4.5 Management Approaches for the Habitat Conservation in the Coastal Areas 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Mangrove Sensitivity to the Ephemeral Rise of Sea Waters in the Western Sundarban 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Study Area 10.3 Methods of the Study 10.4 Results and Discussion 10.4.1 Geomorphology of the Mangrove Shores 10.4.2 Climatic Phenomena and Tides Behind the Ephemeral Rise of Sea Level 10.4.3 Anthropogenic Influence 10.4.4 Saltpan Formation 10.4.5 Overwash Deposition 10.4.6 Effects on Mangrove Characteristics 10.5 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Land Degradation and Its Management Approaches in the Middle and Lower Courses of the Subarnarekha River Basin, India 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Study Area 11.3 Methodology 11.4 Results and Discussion 11.4.1 Identification of Land Degradation Types (Regional Diversity of Land Degradation) 11.4.1.1 Land Degradation in the Upland Surface with Dissected Valleys 11.4.1.2 Land Degradation in the Flood Plains Dominated by Subarnarekha and Other Streams 11.4.1.3 Land Degradation in the Deltaic Flat with Coastal Features 11.4.2 Process of Development of Land Degradation Types 11.4.2.1 Water Erosion 11.4.2.2 Flood in the Deltaic Flats with Coastal Features 11.4.2.3 Wind Erosion 11.4.2.4 Salinization Problems 11.4.2.5 Soil Acidity and Land Degradation 11.4.2.6 Overgrazing and Land Degradation 11.5 Management Strategies 11.5.1 Land Management 11.5.2 Water Management 11.6 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Issues and Management Strategies of the Riparian Corridor of the Dulung River Basin, India 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Rationale of the Study 12.3 Materials and Methods 12.4 Results and Discussion 12.4.1 Geomorphological Perspective 12.4.2 The River Corridor Complex 12.4.3 Landscape Ecology Along the River Corridor 12.4.4 The Issues of the River Corridor 12.4.4.1 Flooding Events 12.4.4.2 Bank Failure and Riverbank Erosion 12.4.4.3 Shrinkage of Vegetation 12.4.4.4 Soil Degradation 12.4.5 Management Strategies 12.5 Conclusion References Chapter 13: The Importance of Shoreline Beaches for Coastal Tourism Potential and Their Diversities on the Odisha Coast 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Materials and Method 13.2.1 Tourist Visits in the Coastal Destinations 13.3 Results and Discussion 13.3.1 Beach Tourism Significances 13.3.2 Odisha Coastal Heritage and Tourism 13.3.3 Festivals Organized by Odisha Tourism Department 13.3.4 Ancient Maritime Heritage as Tourism Significance 13.3.5 Coastal Evolution and Decline of Cultural Heritage Sites 13.3.6 Sand Art Culture in Sea Beaches 13.3.7 Inflow of Money Through Tourist Spending (Expenditure) 13.3.8 Tourism Earnings from the Coastal Destinations of Odisha 13.3.9 Estimated Results of Tourism Earnings from the Coastal Destination 13.4 Conclusion References Untitled Chapter 14: Climate Variability and Agricultural Modifications in Purulia and Bankura Districts of West Bengal 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Materials and Methods 14.2.1 Study Area 14.2.2 Trend Analysis of Rainfall and Temperature Using Mann-Kendall Test 14.2.3 Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 14.2.4 NDVI 14.2.5 Water Budget 14.2.6 Stress Degree Day Index (SDDI), Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), and Irrigation Water Requirement (IWR) 14.2.7 Cobb Douglas Production Function 14.3 Results and Discussion 14.3.1 Trend Analysis of Rainfall and Temperature 14.3.2 SPI 14.3.3 NDVI 14.3.4 SDDI and PAR 14.3.5 Cobb-Douglas Production Estimation 14.4 Conclusion References Chapter 15: An Assessment of the Changing Environmental Factors of Estuarine Tidal Flats in Sagar Island 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Methodology 15.3 Results and Discussions 15.3.1 Rise and Fall of Tides in the Hugli Estuary 15.3.2 Tidal Currents and Tidal Ranges in Sediment Transport and Accumulation 15.3.3 Tidal Ranges and Discharge in Estuaries 15.3.4 Sediment Concentration, Salinity in Estuaries 15.3.5 The Role of Waves in the Dynamics of Tidal Flats 15.3.6 The Effect of Storms on the Tidal Flats 15.3.7 The Fluvial Dynamics of the Hugli Downstream Section 15.3.8 The Modern Sea Level Rise and Future of Tidal Flats 15.4 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Temporal and Spatial Changes in the Hugli Estuarine Environment: A Review of Nayachara Island 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Materials and Method of the Study 16.3 Results and Discussion 16.3.1 Haldia Point Estuary Reach 16.3.2 Silver Tree Point Estuary Reach 16.3.3 Baratola-Muriganga Estuary Channel Reach 16.3.4 Sea Facing Distal Islands 16.3.5 Energy Levels and Sediment Supply 16.3.6 Estuary Process Variables 16.3.7 Tidal Processes in the Estuary 16.3.8 Shallow Marine Environment at the Sea Face of the Estuary 16.3.9 Fluvial Regimes in the Estuary 16.4 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Assessment of Hazards and Flood Risks in the Southwestern Sundarbans 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Study Area 17.3 Materials and Method 17.4 Results and Discussion 17.4.1 Identification of Hazards 17.4.2 Cyclones 17.4.3 Coastal Flooding 17.4.4 Impact of Hazards on Southwest Sundarbans 17.4.5 Embankment Breaching 17.4.6 Coastal Erosion 17.5 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Perils of Premature Reclamation: Case Studies from the Indian Sundarbans 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Methodology 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.3.1 Settlement History of the Sundarbans 18.3.2 Problems of Premature Reclamation 18.3.3 Drainage Decay and Discontinuity 18.3.4 Vulnerability 18.4 Conclusion References Chapter 19: Inventory of Landforms and Geomorphosites for the Promotion of Geotourism in South Andaman Island, India 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Materials and Method of the Study 19.3 Results and Discussion 19.3.1 Prospects of Tourism in South Andaman 19.3.2 Tourist Arrival in South Andaman 19.3.3 Seasonality of Tourist Arrival 19.3.4 Tourist Places and Tourism Activities 19.3.5 Tourism Industry & Economy 19.3.6 Estimated Geomorphic Values of the Geomorphosites 19.4 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Historical and Geomorphological Background of Ancient Khejuri-Hijili and Tamralipta Ports in South Bengal 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Materials and Method 20.3 Results and Discussion 20.3.1 Port-Centric Activities 20.3.2 Occupational Activities and Their Changes under Colonialism 20.4 Conclusion References Chapter 21: An Assessment of the Impacts of Marine Litter in the Coastal Regions of West Bengal and Odisha on Flora, Fauna, and Humans 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Study Area 21.3 Materials and Methods 21.4 Results and Discussion 21.4.1 Clean Coast Index (CCI) 21.4.2 Sources and Types of Marine Litters 21.4.3 Suggested Management Practices 21.5 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Groundwater Contamination due to Saline Water Encroachment in Coastal Andhra Pradesh, with Particular Emphasis on the Morphological Units 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Materials and Method 22.3 Results and Discussion 22.3.1 Coastal Geology and Geomorphology 22.3.2 Coastal Drainage Features 22.3.3 Land Use and Land Cover Types 22.3.4 Variation in Rainfall 22.3.5 Population and Urbanization 22.3.6 Climate Change Threats 22.3.7 Sea Level Rise Effects 22.3.8 CGWB Report (2014) 22.3.9 Surge Water Heights and Tidal Inundations 22.4 Assessment of Potential Areas of Groundwater Contamination 22.5 Conclusion References Part III: Assessment Through Remote Sensing & GIS Approaches Chapter 23: Geomorphological Analysis of the Coral Fringed Coasts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Using Geospatial Techniques 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Study Area 23.3 Methodology 23.4 Results and Discussion 23.4.1 Tectonic Framework 23.4.2 Geologic Settings 23.4.3 Physiographic Diversity 23.4.4 Multiple Processes 23.4.5 Geomorphological Features 23.4.5.1 Coral Reefs and Ecology and Morphology 23.4.6 Coral Reef Problems 23.4.7 The Great Earthquake-2004 and Tsunami Event 23.4.8 Geo-Tourism Prospects 23.5 Conclusion References Chapter 24: Mangroves in Cyclone-Battered Sundarbans, India: A Geoinformatics-Based Multi-temporal Study 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Materials and Methods 24.3 Study Area 24.4 Results and Discussion 24.4.1 Storm Induce Land Erosion 24.4.2 Shifting Sands by Washover Deposits 24.4.3 Hypersalinities 24.4.4 Storm Damages to the Mangrove Trees 24.4.5 Climate Change Reworking and Forest Management 24.5 Conclusion References Chapter 25: Multivariate Analysis of Coastal Vulnerabilities for Tamil Nadu Coast Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Materials and Methodology 25.3 Results and Discussion 25.3.1 Flood Vulnerability 25.3.2 Cyclone Vulnerability 25.3.3 Tsunami Vulnerability 25.3.4 Saltwater Intrusion Vulnerability 25.3.5 Exposure Index (EI) 25.3.6 Sensitivity Index (SI) 25.3.7 Adaptive Capacity Index (ACI) 25.3.8 Composite Vulnerability Index (iCVI) 25.4 Conclusions References Chapter 26: Managing the Coastal Squeeze and Wetland Loss in Sagar Island in a Sustainable Framework Using Geospatial Techniques 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Study Area 26.3 Materials and Methods of the Study 26.4 Results and Discussion 26.4.1 Living Shorelines 26.4.1.1 Physical Alteration of the Environment in the Island 26.4.1.2 Managed Retreat 26.4.1.3 Intertidal Habitat Restoration in the Areas of Coastal Squeeze 26.4.1.4 Methods of Living Shorelines 26.4.2 Acquisition of Land for Conservation and Protection on Private Land 26.4.2.1 Land Acquisition 26.4.2.2 Conservation of Habitats and Short-Term Agreements 26.4.3 Regulatory or Policy Interventions 26.4.3.1 Transfer of Development Rights 26.4.3.2 Coastal Setbacks and Policies for Erosion Allowance 26.4.4 Financial Incentives for Managing Coastal Squeeze 26.5 Effects of Coastal Squeeze in Sagar Islands 26.6 Discussion and Conclusions References Chapter 27: Assessment of Tourism Carrying Capacity for the Sustainable Tourism Development of South Andaman, India 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Study Area 27.3 Methodology 27.3.1 Physical Carrying Capacity (PCC) 27.3.2 Real Carrying Capacity (RCC) 27.3.3 Excessive Sunshine (Cf1) 27.3.4 Rainfall (Cf2) 27.3.5 Cyclone (Cf3) 27.3.6 Beach Quality (Cf4) 27.3.7 Infrastructure Quality (Cf5) 27.3.8 Temporary Closure (Cf6) 27.3.9 Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC) 27.4 Results and Discussion 27.5 Conclusion References Chapter 28: Tourism Climate Index (TCI) for Assessing the Favourable Period for Tourism Recreation Activities with the Application of Geospatial Techniques 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Assessment Method of the TCI Index 28.3 Results and Discussion 28.3.1 Analysis of the TCI Value of Each Month in the Coastal Destinations 28.4 Conclusion References Chapter 29: Assessment of Diversity in Landscape Ecology in Parts of the Purba Medinipur Coastal District, West Bengal, with Geospatial Technology 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Geographical Setup of the Study Area 29.3 Materials and Methods 29.4 Results and Discussions 29.4.1 Topographic Character and Landform Order 29.4.2 Landscape Ecological Diversity 29.4.3 Species Categorisation 29.4.4 Identification of Micro Landscape Units 29.4.5 Linkage Between Morphological Units and Coastal Habitats 29.5 Conclusions References Chapter 30: Overwash Vulnerabilities in Chilika Lagoon With Barrier Spit Morphology of Odisha Coast, an Assessment With Remote Sensing Approach 30.1 Introduction 30.2 About the Study Area 30.3 Materials and Method 30.3.1 Washover Vulnerability Index 30.3.2 Overwashed Shoreline Ratio (OSR) 30.3.3 Maximum Overwash Intrusion Recurrence (MOIR) 30.3.4 Complete Barrier Overwash (CBO) 30.4 Results and Discussion 30.4.1 Dynamic Variation in Wave and Tide 30.4.2 Longshore Drifts 30.4.3 Spit Dynamism 30.4.4 Cyclone Landfalls 30.4.5 Formation and Structure of Washover Fan 30.4.6 Distribution of Washover Fan 30.4.7 Integration of Indices 30.5 Conclusion References Chapter 31: Changing Livelihood Security Index Along the Coastal Belt of Purba Medinipur District, an Assessment Using Spatial Information Systems 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Study Area 31.3 Assessment of the Livelihood Security Index 31.4 Results and Discussion 31.4.1 Economic Security 31.4.2 Food Security 31.4.3 Habitat Security 31.4.4 Health Security 31.4.5 Education Security Index 31.4.6 Determination of Overall Livelihood Security Index (LSI) 31.5 Conclusions References Chapter 32: Urban Sprawling and Its Emerging Consequences in Response to Climate Variability: A Study in Coastal Urban Areas of Digha, Contai, and Haldia Using Remote Sensing Approach 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Study Area 32.3 Database and Methodology 32.4 Results and Discussion 32.4.1 Physical Setup of the Urban Centres 32.4.2 Trend of Urbanization and Urban Sprawling 32.4.3 Nature of Climate Variability 32.4.3.1 Impact of Tidal Fluctuation 32.4.3.2 Cyclonic Events and Associated Risk 32.4.4 Inundation and Waterlogging Problems 32.4.4.1 Tidal Inundation at Digha 32.4.4.2 Water-Logging at Contai 32.4.4.3 Tidal Inundation at Haldia 32.5 Conclusions References Index